The contribution of physical activity and sedentary behaviours to the growth and development of children and adolescents : implications for overweight and obesity

The obesity epidemic is a global trend and is of particular concern in children. Recent reports have highlighted the severity of obesity in children by suggesting: “today's generation of children will be the first for over a century for whom life expectancy falls.” This review assesses the evidence that identifies the important role of physical activity in the growth, development and physical health of young people, owing to its numerous physical and psychological health benefits. Key issues, such as “does a sedentary lifestyle automatically lead to obesity” and “are levels of physical activity in today's children less than physical activity levels in children from previous generations?”, are also discussed. Today's environment enforces an inactive lifestyle that is likely to contribute to a positive energy balance and childhood obesity. Whether a child or adolescent, the evidence is conclusive that physical activity is conducive to a healthy lifestyle and prevention of disease. Habitual physical activity established during the early years may provide the greatest likelihood of impact on mortality and longevity. It is evident that environmental factors need to change if physical activity strategies are to have a significant impact on increasing habitual physical activity levels in children and adolescents. There is also a need for more evidence-based physical activity guidelines for children of all ages. Efforts should be concentrated on facilitating an active lifestyle for children in an attempt to put a stop to the increasing prevalence of obese children

Polyalanine repeat polymorphism in RUNX2 is associated with site-specific fracture in post-menopausal females

Runt related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) is a key regulator of osteoblast differentiation. Several variations within RUNX2 have been found to be associated with significant changes in BMD, which is a major risk factor for fracture. In this study we report that an 18bp deletion within the polyalanine tract (17A>11A) of RUNX2 is significantly associated with fracture. Carriers of the 11A allele were found to be nearly twice as likely to have sustained fracture. Within the fracture category, there was a significant tendency of 11A carriers to present with fractures of bones of intramembranous origin compared to bones of endochondral origin (p=0.005). In a population of random subjects, the 11A allele was associated with decreased levels of serum collagen cross links (CTx, p=0.01), suggesting decreased bone turnover. The transactivation function of the 11A allele was quantitatively decreased. Interestingly, we found no effect of the 11A allele on BMD at multiple skeletal sites, although these were not the sites where a relationship with fracture was most evident. These findings suggest that the 11A allele is a biologically relevant polymorphism that influences serum CTx and confers enhanced fracture risk in a site-selective manner related to intramembranous bone ossification.

Association between postmenopausal osteoporosis and experimental periodontitis

To investigate the correlation between postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMO) and the pathogenesis of periodontitis, ovariectomized rats were generated and the experimental periodontitis was induced using a silk ligature. The inflammatory factors and bone metabolic markers were measured in the serum and periodontal tissues of ovariectomized rats using an automatic chemistry analyzer, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and immunohistochemistry. The bone mineral density of whole body, pelvis, and spine was analyzed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and image analysis. All data were analyzed using SPSS 13.0 statistical software. It was found that ovariectomy could upregulate the expression of interleukin- (IL-)6, the receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL), and osteoprotegerin (OPG) and downregulate IL-10 expression in periodontal tissues, which resulted in progressive alveolar bone loss in experimental periodontitis. This study indicates that changes of cytokines and bone turnover markers in the periodontal tissues of ovariectomized rats contribute to the damage of periodontal tissues.

Modulation of growth by aromatase inhibitor treatment in boys: Efficacy and safety

Without estrogen action, the fusion of the growth plates is postponed and statural growth continues for an exceptionally long time. Aromatase inhibitors, blockers of estrogen biosynthesis, have therefore emerged as a new potential option for the treatment of children with short stature. We investigated the efficacy of the aromatase inhibitor letrozole in the treatment of boys with idiopathic short stature (ISS) using a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind research setting. A total of 30 boys completed the two-year treatment. By decreasing estrogen-mediated central negative feedback, letrozole increased gonadotrophin and testosterone secretion in pubertal boys, whereas the pubertal increase in IGF-I was inhibited. Treatment with letrozole effectively delayed bone maturation and increased predicted adult height by 5.9 cm (P0.001), while placebo had no effect on either parameter. The effect of letrozole treatment on near-final height was studied in another population, in boys with constitutional delay of puberty, who received letrozole (n=9) or placebo (n=8) for one year, in combination with low-dose testosterone for six months during adolescence. The mean near-final height of boys randomised to receive testosterone and letrozole was significantly greater than that of boys who received testosterone and placebo (175.8 vs. 169.1 cm, P=0.04). As regards safety, treatment effects on bone health, lipid metabolism, insulin sensitivity, and body composition were monitored in boys with ISS. During treatment, no differences in bone mass accrual were evident between the treatment groups, as evaluated by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry measurements of the lumbar spine and femoral neck. Bone turnover and cortical bone growth, however, were affected by letrozole treatment. As indicated by differences in markers of bone resorption (U-INTP) and formation (S-PINP and S-ALP), the long-term rate of bone turnover was lower in letrozole-treated boys, despite their more rapid advancement in puberty. Letrozole stimulated cortical bone growth in those who progressed in puberty: the metacarpal index (MCI), a measure of cortical bone thickness, increased more in letrozole-treated pubertal boys than in placebo-treated pubertal boys (25% vs. 9%, P=0.007). The change in MCI correlated positively with the mean testosterone-to-estradiol ratio. In post-treatment radiographic evaluation of the spine, a high rate of vertebral deformities - mild anterior wedging and mild compression deformities - were found in both placebo and letrozole groups. In pubertal boys with ISS treated with letrozole, stimulated testosterone secretion was associated with a decrease in the percentage of fat mass and in HDL-cholesterol, while LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides remained unchanged. Insulin sensitivity, as evaluated by HOMA-IR, was not significantly affected by the treatment. In summary, treatment with the aromatase inhibitor letrozole effectively delayed bone maturation and increased predicted adult height in boys with ISS. Long-term follow-up data of boys with constitutional delay of puberty, treated with letrozole for one year during adolescence, suggest that the achieved gain in predicted adult height also results in increased adult height. However, until the safety of aromatase inhibitor treatment in children and adolescents is confirmed, such treatment should be considered experimental.

Circulating Glucocorticoid Bioactivity and Serum Glucocorticoid-Responsive Biomarkers during Steroid Therapy in Children and Adolescents with Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Objective: Glucocorticoid therapy is used worldwide to treat various inflammatory and immune conditions, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In IBD, 80% of the patients obtain a positive response to the therapy; however the development of glucocorticoid-related side-effects is common. Our aim was therefore to study the possibility of optimizing glucocorticoid therapy in children and adolescents with IBD by measuring circulating glucocorticoid bioactivity (GBA) and serum glucocorticoid-responsive biomarkers in patients receiving steroid treatment for active disease. Methods: A total of sixty-nine paediatric IBD patients from the Paediatric Outpatient Clinics of the University Hospitals of Helsinki and Tampere participated in the studies. Control patients included 101 non-IBD patients and 41 disease controls in remission. In patients with active disease, blood samples were withdrawn before the glucocorticoid therapy was started, at 2-4 weeks after the initiation of the steroid and at 1-month intervals thereafter. Clinical response to glucocorticoid treatment and the development of steroid adverse events was carefully registered. GBA was analyzed with a COS-1 cell bioassay. The measured glucocorticoid therapy-responsive biomarkers included adipocyte-derived adiponectin and leptin, bone turnover-related collagen markers amino-terminal type I procollagen propeptide (PINP) and carboxyterminal telopeptide of type I collagen (ICTP) as well as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), and inflammatory marker high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP). Results: The most promising marker for glucocorticoid sensitivity was serum adiponectin that associated with steroid therapy–related adverse events. Serum leptin indicated a similar trend. In contrast, circulating GBA rose in all subjects receiving glucocorticoid treatment but did not associate with the clinical response to steroids or with glucocorticoid therapy-related side-effects. Of notice, young patients (<10 years) showed similar GBA levels than older patients, despite receiving higher weight-adjusted doses of glucocorticoid. Markers of bone formation were lower in children with active IBD than in the control patients, probably reflecting the suppressive effect of the active inflammation. The onset of the glucocorticoid therapy further suppressed bone turnover. Inflammatory marker hs-CRP decreased readily after the initiation of the steroid, however the decrease did not associate with the clinical response to glucocorticoids. Conclusions: This is the first study to show that adipocyte-derived adiponectin associates with steroid therapy-induced side-effects. Further studies are needed, but it is possible that the adiponectin measurement could aid the recognition of glucocorticoid-sensitive patients in the future. GBA and the other markers reflecting glucocorticoid activity in different tissues changed during the treatment, however their change did not correlate with the therapeutic response to steroids or with the development of glucocorticoid-related side effects and therefore cannot guide the therapy in these patients. Studies such as as the present one that combine clinical data with newly developed biomolecular technology are needed to step-by-step build a general picture of the glucocorticoid actions in different tissues.

Efeito do docetaxel e da ciclofosfamida nas alterações da matriz óssea

A Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS) estima para 2030, 27 milhões de casos incidentes de câncer. No Brasil, segundo o Instituto Nacional do Câncer, foram estimados 518.510 casos novos de câncer para os anos de 2012 e 2013. Dessa estimativa, 52.680 correspondem ao câncer de mama (CM), com um risco estimado de 52 novos casos a cada 100.000 mulheres. O câncer de mama é um dos tipos de câncer mais comuns no mundo todo. Hoje se sabe que o tratamento para o CM pode levar ao surgimento de diferentes efeitos adversos tardios, entre eles a osteoporose. Uma das principais causas de surgimento da osteoporose é a menopausa precoce, que ocorre através da diminuição da concentração de estrogênio sérico. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos na matriz óssea induzidos pela quimioterapia, simulando um tratamento para o CM, em ratas Wistar.Ratas Wistar, com aproximadamente 3 meses de idade, foram divididas em: grupo controle e grupo que recebeu quimioterapia com poliquimioterápico docetaxel + ciclofosfamida (TC). A quimioterapia foi administrada em 4 ciclos, com intervalo de 1 semana entre eles. Os ratos foram submetidos à eutanásia 5 meses após o término do tratamento, para que os efeitos tardios pudessem ser avaliados. Vários estudos foram conduzidos: dosagem sorológica de estradiol, ensaios histológicos através de imunohistoquímica, micro-fluorescência de Raios-X, micro-tomografia computadorizada. Além de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão e varredura.Analisando os resultados obtidos em conjunto, sugere-se que a etapa inicial para o desenvolvimento da osteoporose, causada pelo poliquimioterápico TC, seja a diminuição da função ovariana. Este evento leva à diminuição da concentração de estrogênio sérico, o que causa a atrofia uterina. Concomitante a estes fatos, o TC causa redução na concentração de zinco no tecido ósseo. Estes resultados associados causam um desequilíbrio na relação osteoblastos/osteoclastos no osso. A redução do estrogênio leva à diminuição da apoptose de osteoclastos, enquanto que a redução do zinco inibe a função dos osteoblastos. Este desequilíbrio interfere no turnover do osso, de forma a aumentar a reabsorção óssea. Deste modo, o percentual de osso fica reduzido, as trabéculas tornam-se mais finas e espaçadas. O endpoint deste processo é a osteoporose.A administração dos poliquimioterápicos docetaxel e ciclofosfamida em conjunto leva a diminuição da massa óssea, a adelgaçamento das trabéculas e o aumento do espaço entre elas. Estas observações sugerem que realmente as ratas tratadas com TC apresentam osteoporose. Concluímos que tanto o estrogênio quanto o zinco têm papel fundamental no desenvolvimento desta patologia após quimioterapia com TC.

Osteoprotegerin expression by periodontal ligament fibroblasts

Objectives: Receptor Activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL), through binding to its receptor (RANK), plays an important role in osteoclast differentiation and activation. Conversely, osteoprotegerin (OPG), a decoy receptor for RANKL, inhibits osteoclastogenesis and subsequent bone turnover. Little is known about the role of resident periodontal ligament fibroblasts in regulating bone turnover. The aim of this study was to determine (i) if periodontal ligament fibroblasts produced OPG in vitro and (ii) the effects of IL-1b and TGF-b1 on OPG expression. Methods: Three human periodontal ligament fibroblast populations, developed by explant culture, were grown to confluence in 6-well plates in DMEM supplemented with 10% FCS. Cells were washed in HBSS and then cultured for an additional 48 hours in serum-free media supplemented with IL-1b or TGF-b1 at 10ng/ml. OPG expression levels in the conditioned medium were determined by ELISA (R&D Systems, UK) and confirmed by Western blot. Results: All three fibroblast strains produced quantifiable levels of OPG. Both IL-1b and, to a lesser extent, TGF-b1 significantly stimulated OPG expression in all fibroblast strains (p<0.05). Pre-incubation of samples with N-glycosidase F prior to Western blots indicated glycosylation of expressed OPG. Conclusions: These data indicate that periodontal ligament fibroblasts can regulate osteoclast activation via the RANK/RANKL signalling pathway. These fibroblasts may play an important role in regulating bone turnover both in periodontal disease and orthodontic tooth movement.

Le rôle de la signalisation Wnt dans le phénotype anormal des ostéoblastes ostéoarthrosiques

L’ostéoarthrose (OA) est une pathologie de forte incidence affectant les articulations. Elle est caractérisée principalement par une dégradation du cartilage articulaire, un déséquilibre au niveau du remodelage osseux et une sclérose de l’os sous-chondral. L’étiologie de cette pathologie reste encore méconnue, cependant il semble de plus en plus que tous les tissus composant l’articulation soient affectés dans cette pathologie. L’importance du rôle de l’os dans le développement de l’OA est incontestable et représente donc une cible thérapeuthique intéressante. Des études effectuées par tomodensitométrie ont démontré une structure et une organisation anormales du tissu osseux des patients OA. Parallèlement, les cultures primaires d’ostéoblastes (Ob) humains OA issus de l’os sous-chondral démontrent un phénotype altéré et une faible minéralisation in vitro. La signalisation Wnt, essentielle dans l’embryogenèse, a montré avoir un rôle clé dans la régulation de l’ostéogenèse en régulant notamment la différenciation terminale des Ob. Le facteur de croissance transformant-β1 (TGF-β1), un facteur agissant notamment sur la prolifération et sur le début de la différenciation des Ob, est surexprimé par les Ob OA et pourrait moduler cette signalisation. Aussi, deux populations de patients OA peuvent être différenciées in vitro par la production de prostaglandines E2 (PGE2) par leurs Ob et les PGE2, dans une étude sur le cancer colorectal, ont montré moduler la signalisation Wnt. Notre hypothèse de travail est que l’activation de la voie de signalisation Wnt/β-caténine est diminuée dans les Ob OA. Cette diminution est responsable de la sous-minéralisation et de l’altération du phénotype des Ob humains OA. Par ailleurs, DKK2, dont l’expression est contrôlée par TGF-β1, est responsable de la diminution de l’activité Wnt/β-caténine et les PGE2 peuvent en partie corriger cette situation. L’objectif général de cette étude est d’une part, de démontrer le rôle de TGF-β1, DKK2 et de PGE2 sur l’altération de la signalisation Wnt/β-caténine et d’autre part, de démontrer le lien entre TGF-β1 et DKK2 et l’effet de ces derniers sur le phénotype des Ob. Dans cette étude on a montré que la signalisation canonique Wnt est altérée dans les Ob OA et que cela était responsable de l’altération du phénotype des Ob OA. On a montré, parmi les acteurs de la signalisation Wnt, que l’expression de l’antagoniste Dickkopf-1 (DKK1) était relativement similaire entre les Ob OA et normaux contrairement à celle de l’antagoniste DKK2 qui était augmentée et à celle de l’agoniste Wnt7B qui était diminuée dans les Ob OA. On a également montré que les PGE2 pouvaient potentialiser l’activité de la signalisation Wnt dans les Ob OA. L’inhibition de DKK2 a permis d’augmenter l’activité de la signalisation Wnt et de corriger le phénotype anormal ainsi que d’augmenter la minéralisation des Ob OA. L’inhibition de TGF-β1, un facteur aussi surexprimé dans les Ob OA, a également permis la correction du phénotype et l’augmentation de la minéralisation dans les Ob OA. L’inhibition de TGF-β1 a aussi menée à l’inhibition de DKK2. Le contraire ne fût pas observé démontrant ainsi la régulation de DKK2 par TGF-β1. En conclusion, la signalisation canonique Wnt est diminuée dans les Ob OA et cela est dû au niveau élevé de DKK2 dans ces Ob. TGF-β1 régule positivement DKK2 et donc la surexpression de TGF-β1 entraîne celle de DKK2 ce qui a pour conséquences d’altérer le phénotype des Ob. Les PGE2 ont aussi montré pouvoir potentialiser l’activité de la signalisation Wnt et auraient donc un rôle positif. Ensemble, ces données suggèrent que ces altérations au niveau des Ob OA pourraient être responsables de la structure osseuse anormale observée chez les patients OA.

Fractura de radio distal como predictor de fractura de cadera en mayores de 65 años de un hospital universitario de alta complejidad en Bogotá

La osteoporosis es una de las condiciones patológicas en mayor crecimiento a medida que la población de tercera edad aumenta, esto se traduce en fracturas por fragilidad como lo son las fracturas de radio distal y las fracturas de cadera, actualmente no se cuentas con datos de la población a estudio que correlacione este tipo de fracturas. Es un estudio retrospectivo de casos y controles donde se obtuvo un grupo de pacientes con fractura de cadera que consultaron a un hospital universitario de alta complejidad en la ciudad de Bogotá, se evaluó la presencia de antecedente de fractura de radio distal y se comparó con un grupo control de trauma en cadera. Se obtuvo un total de 325 casos (72,5%) y 123 (25%) controles. El promedio de edad fue de 81 años, el 70% de los pacientes en ambos grupos correspondió a mujeres. No hubo diferencia en cuanto a la prevalencia de tabaquismo, hipertensión arterial o diabetes en los grupos. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en cuanto a niveles de glicemia, calcio, vitamina D. La presencia de antecedente de fractura de radio distal en grupo con fractura de cadera fue del 7,1% encontrando un OR de 3,91 IC 95%(1,17– 13,10). La presencia de fractura de radio distal como antecedente es un predictor para la fractura de cadera en pacientes mayores. Se necesitan más estudios que correlacionen otras variables que pueden influir en la asociación para fractura de cadera y radio, para así identificar una población específica que se beneficie de un tratamiento temprano.

Skeletal morbidity among survivors of critical illness

Objectives: To describe the incident fracture rate in survivors of critical illness and to compare fracture risk with populationmatched control subjects.

Design: Retrospective longitudinal case– cohort study.

Setting: A tertiary adult intensive care unit in Australia. Patients: All patients ventilated admitted to intensive care and requiring mechanical ventilation for >48 hrs between January 1998 and December 2005.

Interventions: None.

Measurements and Main Results: New fractures were identified in the study population for the postintensive care unit period (intensive care unit discharge to January 2008). The incident fracture rate and age-adjusted fracture risk of the female intensive care unit population were compared with the general population adult females derived from the Geelong Osteoporosis Study. Over the 8-yr period, a total of 739 patients (258 women, 481 men) were identified. After a median follow-up of 3.7 yrs (interquartile range, 2.0–5.9 yrs) for women and 4.0 yrs (interquartile range, 2.1–6.1 yrs) for men, incident fracture rates (95% confidence interval) per 100 patient years were 3.84 (2.58 –5.09) for females 2.41 (1.73–3.09) for males. Compared with an age-matched random population-based sample of women, elderly women were at increased risk for sustaining an osteoporosisrelated fracture after critical illness (hazard ratio, 1.65; 95% confidence interval, 1.08 –2.52; p .02).

Conclusions: The increase in fracture risk observed in postintensive care unit older females suggests an association between critical illness and subsequent skeletal morbidity. The explanation for this association is not explored in this study and includes the effects of pre-existing patient factors and/or direct effects of critical illness. Prospective research evaluating risk factors, the relationship between critical illness and bone turnover, the extent and duration of bone loss, and the associated morbidity in this population is warranted.

Current status of biotechnological production of the cholesterol lowering drug lovastatin and its biomedical applications

Lovastatin is a potent hypercholesterolemic drug used for lowering blood cholesterol. It acts by competitively inhibiting the enzyme, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase involved in the biosynthesis of cholesterol. It is produced by a variety of filamentous fungi including Penicillium species, Monascus ruber and Aspergillus terreus as a secondary metabolite. Production of lovastatin by biotechnology decreases the production cost compared to costs of chemical synthesis. In recent years, lovastatin has also been reported as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of various types of tumors and also play a tremendous role in the regulation of the inflammatory and immune response, coagulation process, bone turnover, neovascularization, vascular tone, and arterial pressure. This review focus on the structure, biosynthesis, biotechnological production and biomedical applications of lovastatin.

Polyalanine repeat polymorphism in RUNX2 is associated with site-specific fracture in post-menopausal femals

Runt related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) is a key regulator of osteoblast differentiation. Several variations within the RUNX2 gene have been found to be associated with significant changes in BMD, which is a major risk factor for fracture. In this study we report that an 18 bp deletion within the polyalanine tract (17A>11A) of RUNX2 is significantly associated with fracture. Carriers of the 11A allele were found to be nearly twice as likely to have sustained fracture. Within the fracture category, there was a significant tendency of 11A carriers to present with fractures of distal radius and bones of intramembranous origin compared to bones of endochondral origin (p = 0.0001). In a population of random subjects, the 11A allele was associated with decreased levels of serum collagen cross links (CTx, p = 0.01), suggesting decreased bone turnover. The transactivation function of the 11A allele showed a minor quantitative decrease. Interestingly, we found no effect of the 11A allele on BMD at multiple skeletal sites. These findings suggest that the 11A allele is a biologically relevant polymorphism that influences serum CTx and confers enhanced fracture risk in a site-selective manner related to intramembranous bone ossification.

O esporte e suas implicações na saúde óssea de atletas adolescentes

A adolescência é um período fundamental para a aquisição da massa óssea. em adolescentes atletas, o pico de massa óssea pode apresentar maior incremento, em virtude do estresse mecânico imposto aos ossos pelo exercício físico praticado. O objetivo desta revisão foi investigar o papel do treinamento esportivo vigoroso e precoce sobre a saúde óssea de atletas adolescentes. Através da revisão da literatura científica, envolvendo adolescentes atletas de diferentes modalidades e de ambos os sexos, é possível inferir que a densidade mineral óssea é potencializada pelos exercícios, quando grupos de atletas são comparados com grupos de controle. Entretanto, muito se discute na literatura quanto à recomendação da intensidade adequada da prescrição de exercício físico para população adolescente, uma vez que, caso o treinamento se torne muito extenuante, os benefícios gerados pela atividade sobre a saúde dos ossos podem ser minimizados ou anulados. Embora muita controvérsia ainda envolva o tema, independente do tipo de esporte praticado, o aumento de intensidade do treinamento deve ser razoável e coerente com as metas, sendo enfatizado treinamento seguro e eficaz para cada uma das faixas de idade e momentos da maturação biológica, independente dos calendários competitivos.

Histomorphometric analysis and immunolocalization of RANKL and OPG during the alveolar healing process in female ovariectomized rats treated with oestrogen or raloxifene

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Effects of experimental osteoporosis and low calcium intake on postextraction sockets of rats

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)