The calculative turn in land value capture: lessons from the English planning system

For over three decades, negotiated planning obligations have been the primary form of land value capture in England. Diffusing and evolving over the last decade, a significant policy innovation has been the use of financial calculations to estimate the extent to which policies on planning obligations for actual, proposed development projects and in plan making affect the financial viability of development. This paper assesses the extent to which the use of financial appraisals has provided a robust, just and practical procedure to support land value capture. It is concluded that development viability appraisals are saturated with intrinsic uncertainty and that land value capture that is based on such calculations is, to some extent, capricious. In addition, clear incentives for developers and land owners to bias viability calculations, the economic dependence of many viability consultants on developers and land owners, a lack of transparency, contested or ambiguous guidance and the opportunities created by input uncertainty for bias are further failings. It is argued that how viability calculations are applied has been, is being and will continue to be shaped by power relations.

Joint development and value capture in Los Angeles : local policy formulation /

"DOT-I-83-23."

The Value System of Consumer Board Packaging

Olemassa olevien teollisuuden rakenteiden ja arvoketjujen muutos on usein onnistuneiden liiketoimintainnovaatioiden takana. Yritysten tulisikin olla tietoisia rakenteista, jotka määrittelevät arvon jakaantumista niiden arvoketjuissa. Tämän työn tavoitteena oli tutkia ja arvioida kartongin pakkausketjujen rakenteita kartongintuottajalta aina kauppiaalle asti. Työn kuluessa yritysketjujen arviointia varten oli kehitettävä uudenlainen analysointityökalu. Työssä käsitellyt kartonkipakkausketjut olivat nestekartonkipakkaaminen, elintarvikepakkaaminen, lääkepakkaaminen sekä graafisten kartonkien ketju. Jokaista edellä mainituista ketjuista arvioitiin käyttämällä kehitettyä analysointityökalua. Työn merkittävin tulos on kehitetty työkalu, jolla pakkausketjuja sekä myös muita yritysketjuja on mahdollista analysoida. Kehitettyä työkalua käyttämällä oli mahdollista tehdä johtopäätöksiä vertikaalin integraation mahdollisuudesta sekä pakkausketjujen suotuisuudesta uusille bisnesmalleille. Sekä analysointityökalua että saatuja johtopäätöksiä voidaan käyttää hyväksi, kun kartongintuottaja suunnittelee tulevaisuuden toimenpiteitä.

Value Creation Through Sustainability Within The Housing Industry - A Company’s View

The economy, under the condition of scarcity is meanwhile aiming at more rational economic activities that are efficient and effective. Companies need to know how to make use of new possibilities towards a more sustainable business. The right balance between risk and opportunity implies a sustainable growth and competitive advantage. Managers need to navigate companies across the globalization, as the global economy is constantly in motion. Further, companies have to face trends since the business world is changing radically. In order to keep up with those changes, companies have to recognize new trends early and respond quickly, efficiently and smart. To gain a competitive edge is without a doubt a critical aspect of a comprehensive value creation economy that withstands the demand for value capture and sustainability. Expectations towards a responsible economy are growing steadily. Therefore, companies have increasingly an obligation to economize more sustainable and to communicate their social and environmental commitment externally. Sustainability can live through the entire structure of value creation of a company. By reducing environmental and social risks companies can create values. This value creation thus represents a proper performance of a company and the accomplished added value through companies’ activities.

Public-Private Partnership Design for Inclusive Cocoa Global Value Chains in Ghana

Within 10 years, there could be a severe global shortage in the supply of cocoa, according to industry practitioners and other experts. Due to global population growth and the emergence of a growing global middle class, by 2025 the cocoa crop would need to increase by nearly 50 per cent to keep up with projected demand. A potential shortage of supply is a direct threat to the business model of lead firms – including cocoa grinders and processors, chocolate confectioners, and retail distributors. But these international firms – the ones that will suffer the most if there is a shortage of cocoa supply – are helping create the market failure that is stifling sustainability. Functioning as a two-tiered consolidated oligopoly with a combined market share of approximately 89%, these firms enjoy the largest portion of value capture in the cocoa-chocolate global value chain (GVC). The smallholder cocoa producers, conversely, are trapped in low value-add segments of the GVC. In fact, most smallholder farmers survive on less than $1.00 per day per capita, on average in many cocoa exporting countries. In Ghana - the second largest producer of cocoa in the world - the government has accomplished little to help these smallholders upgrade and make cocoa an attractive sector for the next generation to inherit. The result – both in Ghana and around the world – is a lack of sustainability of the supply of cocoa. Demand is already beginning to outstrip supply. As a result of these underlying circumstances, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has posed the following policy question: "Under what conditions could USAID, as a development agency, support and enhance potential public-private partnerships in order to improve the bargaining power (and financial wherewithal) of smallholder organizations and farmers in the context of the global value chain for cocoa in Ghana?"

Modelo de conhecimento para intermediários de inovação com Crowdsourcing

Tese de Doutoramento em Tecnologias e Sistemas de Informação.

Sharing competences in strategic alliances: a case study of the Cosan and Shell biofuel venture

In a competitive world, the way a firm establishes its organizational arrangements may determine the enhancement of its core competences and the possibility of reaching new markets. Firms that find their skills to be applicable in just one type of market encounter constraints in expanding their markets, and through alliances may find a competitive form of value capture. Hybrid forms of organization appear primarily as an alternative to capturing value and managing joint assets when the market and hierarchy modes do not present any yields for the firm's competitiveness. As a result, this form may present other challenging issues, such as the allocation of rights and principal-agent problems. The biofuel market has presented a strong pattern of changes over the last 10 years. New intra-firm arrangements have appeared as a path to participate or survive among global competition. Given the need for capital to achieve better results, there has been a consistent movement of mergers and acquisitions in the Biofuel sector, especially since the 2008 financial crisis. In 2011 there were five major groups in Brazil with a grinding capacity of more than 15 million tons per year: Raízen (joint venture formed by Cosan and Shell), Louis Dreyfus, Tereos Petrobras, ETH, and Bunge. Major oil companies have implemented the strategy of diversification as a hedge against the rising cost of oil. Using the alliance of Cosan and Shell in the Brazilian biofuel market as a case study, this paper analyses the governance mode and challenging issues raised by strategic alliances when firms aim to reach new markets through the sharing of core competences with local firms. The article is based on documentary research and interviews with Cosan's Investor Relations staff, and examines the main questions involving hybrid forms through the lens of the Transaction Cost Economics (TCE), Agency Theory, Resource Based View (RBV), and dynamic capabilities theoretical approaches. One focal point is knowledge "appropriability" and the specific assets originated by the joint venture. Once the alliance is formed, it is expected that competences will be shared and new capabilities will expand the limits of the firm. In the case studied, Cosan and Shell shared a number of strategic assets related to their competences. Raízen was formed with economizing incentives, as well to continue marshalling internal resources to enhance the company's presence in the world energy sector. Therefore, some challenges might be related to the control and monitoring agents' behavior, considering the two-part organism formed by distinctive organizational culture, tacit knowledge, and long-term incentives. The case study analyzed illustrates the hybrid arrangement as a middle form for organizing the transaction: neither in the market nor in the hierarchy mode, but rather a more flexible commitment agreement with a strategic central authority. The corporate governance devices are also a challenge, since the alignment between the parent companies in the joint ventures is far more complex. These characteristics have led to an organism with bilateral dependence, offering favorable conditions for developing dynamic capabilities. However, these conditions might rely on the partners' long-term interest in the joint venture.

Formal and informal mechanisms for knowledge protection and sharing

The most important knowledge in firms is mostly tacit and embedded in individuals within the organization. This background knowledge that firms possess is used for creation of new knowledge and innovations. As firms today greatly concentrate on their core competencies, they need external knowledge from various collaboration partners. Thus, collaborative relationship governance, as well as control (use of appropriability mechanisms) over background (the input from each firm in innovative activities) and foreground knowledge (the output of collaboration activities) is needed in order to successfully create and capture value from innovative activities without losing core knowledge and competitiveness. Even though research has concentrated on knowledge protection and knowledge sharing, studies that combine both of these views and examine the effects of sharing and protection on value creation and capture have been rather limited. Studies have mainly focused on the protection of the output of innovation while forgetting the protection of the input of innovation. On the other hand, as the research concentrating on the output of innovation tends to favor formal mechanisms, informal mechanisms have remained more unknown to researchers as well as managers. This research aims to combine the perspectives of knowledge sharing and knowledge protection and their relationship with value creation and value capture. The sharing and protection are viewed from two points of view: the use of appropriability mechanisms, as well as governance of the collaborative relationship. The study consists of two parts. The first part introduces the research topic and discusses the overall results. The second part comprises six complementary research publications. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods are used in the study. In terms of results, the findings enhance understanding of the combined use of formal and informal mechanisms for knowledge protection and sharing. Informal mechanisms appear to be emphasized in the protection of background knowledge, and thus are prerequisites for innovation, whereas formal mechanisms are relied on more for protecting the results of innovative activities. However, the simultaneous use of the formal and informal mechanisms that are relevant to the particular industry and innovation context is recommendedthroughout the collaborative innovation process. Further, the study adds to the current knowledge on HRM as an appropriability mechanism: on the firm level its uses include assessing and hedging against employee-related risks such as knowledge leaking and knowledge leaving. A further contribution is to the research on HRM protection and its interrelations with other appropriability mechanisms, its constituents, and its potential use in the area of knowledge protection.

Ecosystem architecture design: endogenous and exogenous structural properties

The aim of this dissertation is to bridge and synthesize the different streams of literature addressing ecosystem architecture through a multiple‐lens perspective. In addition, the structural properties of and processes to design and manage the architecture will be examined. With this approach, the oft‐neglected actor‐structure duality is addressed and both the position and structure, and action and process are under scrutiny. Further, the developed framework and empirical evidence offer valuable insights on how firms collectively create value and individually appropriate value. The dissertation is divided into two parts. The first part comprises a literature review, as well as the conclusions of the whole study, and the second part includes six research publications. The dissertation is based on three different reasoning logics: abduction, induction and deduction; related qualitative and quantitative methodologies are utilized in the empirical examination of the phenomenon in the information and communication technology industry. The results suggest firstly that there are endogenous and exogenous structural properties of the ecosystem architecture. Out of these, the former ones can be more easily influenced by a particular actor whereas the latter ones are taken more or less for granted. Secondly, the exogenous ecosystem design properties influence the value creation potential of the ecosystem whereas the endogenous ecosystem design properties influence the value appropriation potential of a particular actor in the ecosystem. Thirdly, the study suggests that there is a relationship between endogenous and exogenous structural properties in that the endogenous properties can be leveraged to create and reconfigure the exogenous properties whereas the exogenous properties prose opportunities and restrictions on the use of endogenous properties. In addition, the study suggests that there are different emergent and engineered processes to design and manage ecosystem architecture and to influence both the endogenous and exogenous structural properties of ecosystem architecture. This study makes three main contributions. First, on the conceptual level, it brings coherence and direction to the fast growing body of literature on novel inter‐organizational arrangements, such as ecosystems. It does this by bridging and synthetizing three different streams of literature, namely the boundary, design and orchestration conception. Secondly, it sets out a framework that enhances our understanding of the structural properties of ecosystem architecture; of the processes to design and manage ecosystem architecture; and of their influence on the value creation potential of the ecosystem and the value capture potential of a particular firm. Thirdly, it offers empirical evidence of the structural properties and processes.

Instrumentos de financiación deldesarrollo urbano en colombia: la contribución por valorización y la participación en plusvalías. Lecciones y reflexiones

La participación en plusvalías (PPV) es el instrumento de política de una reforma de gran transcendencia en Colombia: la recuperación de las rentas del suelo y su movilización social. Durante la fase de implementación de la PPV se han venido estableciendo esquemas operativos fragmentados que propician una visión procedimental y atomizada del tributo, la cual promueve lógicas institucionales que potencialmente retardan su evolución plena como instrumento de política de suelo. El análisis de la trayectoria de varias décadas de las ciudades colombianas con la contribución por valorización (CV) sugiere que la continuidad y evolución de este instrumento y sus instituciones se derivan en gran parte del manejo “ingenioso” de esta política frente a su entorno de implementación. Por tratarse de un instrumento de recuperación parcial de plusvalías, constituye un precedente para la PPV a partir del cual es posible derivar valiosas lecciones. Este artículo presenta para discusión los factores de viabilidad y sostenibilidad identificados a través del análisis de la experiencia de implementación y del proceso general de consolidación de la CV; así como reflexiones que de allí surgieron sobre la dirección que en el mismo contexto debería dársele a la implementación de la PPV, de manera que se propicien condiciones de entorno favorables a la evolución institucional y sostenibilidad de la reforma.-----Participation in Land Value Increments (participación en plusvalías-PPV) is an essential policy instrument of the urban Reform in Colombia designed to capture and socially mobilize land rents originated by public decisions and investments. The analysis of its recent implementation process in Bogota provides evidence that current institutional arrangements are creating a general tendency amongst the institutions involved towards isolated procedural management, which potentially hinders the integrated vision required to manage the instrument at the policy level. Special Assessment (contribución por valorización-CV), an earlier form of partial value capture, has a long history in Colombia as an effective financialinstrument for urban management. Analysis of the factors that have contributed to successfully consolidate CV show that its technical evolution, continuity and political legitimacy have been strongly supported by integrated institutions and strategic management. Through comparative analysis, the experience with CV is used to draw some useful parallels and insights for a discussion about how PPV´s implementation process should be redirected towards strategic policy thinking and “smart value capture”.

Aproximación a un modelo metodológico orientado a los procesos de gestión de conocimiento generadores de valor en organizaciones del sector salud en Colombia

En las organizaciones del sector salud en Colombia, se realizan procedimientos que a pesar de ser homólogos entre ellos, no se discriminan ocasionando que no siempre se escoja el que genere mejores resultados, no solo desde el punto de vista médico sino también de la dirección que se ejerce en las organizaciones la cual debe estar en función de optimizar cualquiera de los procesos propios de la actividad, en este caso, en busca de generación de valor usando como vía la apropiada GC, éste documento está orientado a demostrar que la GC aporta herramientas que permiten desarrollar la aproximación a un modelo metodológico que procura facilitar la elección de procedimientos en salud si se toman los costos asociados como criterios relevantes del análisis, se seleccionaron como instrumento de demostración a los procesos denominados Traqueostomía Quirúrgica y Traqueostomía Percutánea la intensión de desarrollar una aproximación a un modelo metodológico orientado a los procesos de gestión de conocimiento generadores de valor en organizaciones del sector salud en Colombia.

A good enough approach to setting planning obligations

In this paper we propose an alternative model of, what is often called, land value capture in the planning system. Based on development viability models, negotiations and policy formation regarding the level of planning obligations have taken place at the local level with little clear guidance on technique, approach and method. It is argued that current approaches are regressive and fail to reflect how the ability of sites to generate planning gain can vary over time and between sites. The alternative approach suggested here attempts to rationalise rather than replace the existing practice of development viability appraisal. It is based upon the assumption that schemes with similar development values should produce similar levels of return to the landowner, developer and other stakeholders in the development as well as similar levels of planning obligations in all parts of the country. Given the high level of input uncertainty in viability modelling, a simple viability model is ‘good enough’ to quantify the maximum level of planning obligations for a given level of development value. We have argued that such an approach can deliver a more durable, equitable, simpler, consistent and cheaper method for policy formation regarding planning obligations.

Governing calculative practices: An investigation of development viability modelling in the English planning system

Over the last decade the English planning system has placed greater emphasis on the financial viability of development. ‘Calculative’ practices have been used to quantify and capture land value uplifts. Development viability appraisal (DVA) has become a key part of the evidence base used in planning decision-making and informs both ‘site-specific’ negotiations about the level of land value capture for individual schemes and ‘area-wide’ planning policy formation. This paper investigates how implementation of DVA is governed in planning policy formation. It is argued that the increased use of DVA raises important questions about how planning decisions are made and operationalised, not least because DVA is often poorly understood by some key stakeholders. The paper uses the concept of governance to thematically analyse semi-structured interviews conducted with the producers of DVAs and considers key procedural issues including (in)consistencies in appraisal practices, levels of stakeholder consultation and the potential for client and producer bias. Whilst stakeholder consultation is shown to be integral to the appraisal process in order to improve the quality of the appraisals and to legitimise the outputs, participation is restricted to industry experts and excludes some interest groups, including local communities. It is concluded that, largely because of its recent adoption and knowledge asymmetries between local planning authorities and appraisers, DVA is a weakly governed process characterised by emerging and contested guidance and is therefore ‘up for grabs’.

Criação de valor no relacionamento entre empresas químicas e seus clientes

Relacionamentos entre fornecedores e compradores são fatores importantes para a melhoria do desempenho das empresas. A literatura nem sempre confirma que a relação entre relacionamento e desempenho é positiva. Alguns estudos demonstram que uma empresa pode ter vantagem competitiva e não apresentar desempenho financeiro superior. A falta de um modelo integrativo para os benefícios do relacionamento, as diferentes formas de captura de valor pelas partes e a influência do contexto no relacionamento podem ser apontadas como causas destes resultados inconclusivos. Para contribuir nesta discussão, o presente estudo propõe e testa um modelo de criação e captura de valor como forma de avaliar os benefícios dos relacionamentos de forma integrada, na presença de incerteza e competição. O uso do valor como variável dependente em estudos sobre relacionamentos comprador-fornecedor é uma inovação, mas mostra-se mais adequado, pois é mais abrangente que a medição de desempenho, a qual enfoca somente a captura de valor pelas partes, e não o valor total criado no relacionamento. Para o teste do modelo, a Visão Relacional da Estratégia foi adotada como perspectiva teórica. Ela tem grande aderência aos conceitos de criação de valor, embora a operacionalização de seus quatro construtos, chamados de recursos relacionais, não encontre um padrão na literatura. Desta forma, outra contribuição a que o estudo se propôs foi testar esses construtos separadamente. Uma survey foi conduzida junto a empresas químicas com operação no Brasil. Foi testada uma nova forma de operacionalização da criação de valor, com três variáveis dependentes distintas (valor capturado pelo fornecedor, valor capturado pelo comprador e valor gerado ao longo do tempo). Este modelo possibilitou observar a existência de benefícios capturados pelas partes e advindos do relacionamento, além de fornecer evidências de que há diferenças entre a captura de valor pelo comprador e pelo fornecedor. Não foi possível comprovar a validade discriminante de três dos construtos da visão relacional, o que confirma a necessidade de uma evolução de sua operacionalização. Por fim, observou-se que os recursos relacionais impactam na criação de valor e que a incerteza e a competição influenciam a captura de valor pelas partes e o valor criado no relacionamento.

Valor e vantagem competitiva: buscando definições, relações e repercussões

O tópico central que motiva o presente trabalho é o papel que o valor desempenha nas teorias de estratégia e que, apesar de ser considerado nas principais correntes de pensamento do campo, ainda apresenta indefinição. O objetivo é explorar as principais definições de valor e suas implicações para o desenvolvimento teórico no campo da Administração Estratégica, mais especificamente, para as investigações sobre vantagem competitiva sustentável. Ao trabalhar com conceitos de valor, como valor de uso, valor de troca, criação de valor, valor capturado, valor percebido e uso do valor, pode-se demonstrar que a formação e a sustentação de vantagem competitiva estão além do olhar predominantemente econômico. Elas necessitam ser complementadas por dimensões que atinjam o consumidor, alterando seu estado de espírito, seus desejos e suas emoções. A vantagem competitiva, nesse novo contexto, pode ser entendida como uma governança de um sistema de firmas que se alinham para a criação e a entrega de um valor de uso, e que se relaciona mutuamente para dividir o valor. Em um movimento recursivo, as informações e valores seguem a montante e a jusante da cadeia de firmas, formando um fenômeno complexo em que o processo de formação da estratégia é determinado por uma heurística própria de cada estrategista.