High Efficiency Envelope Amplifier based on a Ripple Cancellation Buck Converter. Design, Optimization and Integration in an EER RFPA

Durante los últimos años la tendencia en el sector de las telecomunicaciones ha sido un aumento y diversificación en la transmisión de voz, video y fundamentalmente de datos. Para conseguir alcanzar las tasas de transmisión requeridas, los nuevos estándares de comunicaciones requieren un mayor ancho de banda y tienen un mayor factor de pico, lo cual influye en el bajo rendimiento del amplificador de radiofrecuencia (RFPA). Otro factor que ha influido en el bajo rendimiento es el diseño del amplificador de radiofrecuencia. Tradicionalmente se han utilizado amplificadores lineales por su buen funcionamiento. Sin embargo, debido al elevado factor de pico de las señales transmitidas, el rendimiento de este tipo de amplificadores es bajo. El bajo rendimiento del sistema conlleva desventajas adicionales como el aumento del coste y del tamaño del sistema de refrigeración, como en el caso de una estación base, o como la reducción del tiempo de uso y un mayor calentamiento del equipo para sistemas portátiles alimentados con baterías. Debido a estos factores, se han desarrollado durante las últimas décadas varias soluciones para aumentar el rendimiento del RFPA como la técnica de Outphasing, combinadores de potencia o la técnica de Doherty. Estas soluciones mejoran las prestaciones del RFPA y en algún caso han sido ampliamente utilizados comercialmente como la técnica de Doherty, que alcanza rendimientos hasta del 50% para el sistema completo para anchos de banda de hasta 20MHz. Pese a las mejoras obtenidas con estas soluciones, los mayores rendimientos del sistema se obtienen para soluciones basadas en la modulación de la tensión de alimentación del amplificador de potencia como “Envelope Tracking” o “EER”. La técnica de seguimiento de envolvente o “Envelope Tracking” está basada en la modulación de la tensión de alimentación de un amplificador lineal de potencia para obtener una mejora en el rendimiento en el sistema comparado a una solución con una tensión de alimentación constante. Para la implementación de esta técnica se necesita una etapa adicional, el amplificador de envolvente, que añade complejidad al amplificador de radiofrecuencia. En un amplificador diseñado con esta técnica, se aumentan las pérdidas debido a la etapa adicional que supone el amplificador de envolvente pero a su vez disminuyen las pérdidas en el amplificador de potencia. Si el diseño se optimiza adecuadamente, puede conseguirse un aumento global en el rendimiento del sistema superior al conseguido con las técnicas mencionadas anteriormente. Esta técnica presenta ventajas en el diseño del amplificador de envolvente, ya que el ancho de banda requerido puede ser menor que el ancho de banda de la señal de envolvente si se optimiza adecuadamente el diseño. Adicionalmente, debido a que la sincronización entre la señal de envolvente y de fase no tiene que ser perfecta, el proceso de integración conlleva ciertas ventajas respecto a otras técnicas como EER. La técnica de eliminación y restauración de envolvente, llamada EER o técnica de Kahn está basada en modulación simultánea de la envolvente y la fase de la señal usando un amplificador de potencia conmutado, no lineal y que permite obtener un elevado rendimiento. Esta solución fue propuesta en el año 1952, pero no ha sido implementada con éxito durante muchos años debido a los exigentes requerimientos en cuanto a la sincronización entre fase y envolvente, a las técnicas de control y de corrección de los errores y no linealidades de cada una de las etapas así como de los equipos para poder implementar estas técnicas, que tienen unos requerimientos exigentes en capacidad de cálculo y procesamiento. Dentro del diseño de un RFPA, el amplificador de envolvente tiene una gran importancia debido a su influencia en el rendimiento y ancho de banda del sistema completo. Adicionalmente, la linealidad y la calidad de la señal de transmitida deben ser elevados para poder cumplir con los diferentes estándares de telecomunicaciones. Esta tesis se centra en el amplificador de envolvente y el objetivo principal es el desarrollo de soluciones que permitan el aumento del rendimiento total del sistema a la vez que satisfagan los requerimientos de ancho de banda, calidad de la señal transmitida y de linealidad. Debido al elevado rendimiento que potencialmente puede alcanzarse con la técnica de EER, esta técnica ha sido objeto de análisis y en el estado del arte pueden encontrarse numerosas referencias que analizan el diseño y proponen diversas implementaciones. En una clasificación de alto nivel, podemos agrupar las soluciones propuestas del amplificador de envolvente según estén compuestas de una o múltiples etapas. Las soluciones para el amplificador de envolvente en una configuración multietapa se basan en la combinación de un convertidor conmutado, de elevado rendimiento con un regulador lineal, de alto ancho de banda, en una combinación serie o paralelo. Estas soluciones, debido a la combinación de las características de ambas etapas, proporcionan un buen compromiso entre rendimiento y buen funcionamiento del amplificador de RF. Por otro lado, la complejidad del sistema aumenta debido al mayor número de componentes y de señales de control necesarias y el aumento de rendimiento que se consigue con estas soluciones es limitado. Una configuración en una etapa tiene las ventajas de una mayor simplicidad, pero debido al elevado ancho de banda necesario, la frecuencia de conmutación debe aumentarse en gran medida. Esto implicará un bajo rendimiento y un peor funcionamiento del amplificador de envolvente. En el estado del arte pueden encontrarse diversas soluciones para un amplificador de envolvente en una etapa, como aumentar la frecuencia de conmutación y realizar la implementación en un circuito integrado, que tendrá mejor funcionamiento a altas frecuencias o utilizar técnicas topológicas y/o filtros de orden elevado, que permiten una reducción de la frecuencia de conmutación. En esta tesis se propone de manera original el uso de la técnica de cancelación de rizado, aplicado al convertidor reductor síncrono, para reducir la frecuencia de conmutación comparado con diseño equivalente del convertidor reductor convencional. Adicionalmente se han desarrollado dos variantes topológicas basadas en esta solución para aumentar la robustez y las prestaciones de la misma. Otro punto de interés en el diseño de un RFPA es la dificultad de poder estimar la influencia de los parámetros de diseño del amplificador de envolvente en el amplificador final integrado. En esta tesis se ha abordado este problema y se ha desarrollado una herramienta de diseño que permite obtener las principales figuras de mérito del amplificador integrado para la técnica de EER a partir del diseño del amplificador de envolvente. Mediante el uso de esta herramienta pueden validarse el efecto del ancho de banda, el rizado de tensión de salida o las no linealidades del diseño del amplificador de envolvente para varias modulaciones digitales. Las principales contribuciones originales de esta tesis son las siguientes: La aplicación de la técnica de cancelación de rizado a un convertidor reductor síncrono para un amplificador de envolvente de alto rendimiento para un RFPA linealizado mediante la técnica de EER. Una reducción del 66% en la frecuencia de conmutación, comparado con el reductor convencional equivalente. Esta reducción se ha validado experimentalmente obteniéndose una mejora en el rendimiento de entre el 12.4% y el 16% para las especificaciones de este trabajo. La topología y el diseño del convertidor reductor con dos redes de cancelación de rizado en cascada para mejorar el funcionamiento y robustez de la solución con una red de cancelación. La combinación de un convertidor redactor multifase con la técnica de cancelación de rizado para obtener una topología que proporciona una reducción del cociente entre frecuencia de conmutación y ancho de banda de la señal. El proceso de optimización del control del amplificador de envolvente en lazo cerrado para mejorar el funcionamiento respecto a la solución en lazo abierto del convertidor reductor con red de cancelación de rizado. Una herramienta de simulación para optimizar el proceso de diseño del amplificador de envolvente mediante la estimación de las figuras de mérito del RFPA, implementado mediante EER, basada en el diseño del amplificador de envolvente. La integración y caracterización del amplificador de envolvente basado en un convertidor reductor con red de cancelación de rizado en el transmisor de radiofrecuencia completo consiguiendo un elevado rendimiento, entre 57% y 70.6% para potencias de salida de 14.4W y 40.7W respectivamente. Esta tesis se divide en seis capítulos. El primer capítulo aborda la introducción enfocada en la aplicación, los amplificadores de potencia de radiofrecuencia, así como los principales problemas, retos y soluciones existentes. En el capítulo dos se desarrolla el estado del arte de amplificadores de potencia de RF, describiéndose las principales técnicas de diseño, las causas de no linealidad y las técnicas de optimización. El capítulo tres está centrado en las soluciones propuestas para el amplificador de envolvente. El modo de control se ha abordado en este capítulo y se ha presentado una optimización del diseño en lazo cerrado para el convertidor reductor convencional y para el convertidor reductor con red de cancelación de rizado. El capítulo cuatro se centra en el proceso de diseño del amplificador de envolvente. Se ha desarrollado una herramienta de diseño para evaluar la influencia del amplificador de envolvente en las figuras de mérito del RFPA. En el capítulo cinco se presenta el proceso de integración realizado y las pruebas realizadas para las diversas modulaciones, así como la completa caracterización y análisis del amplificador de RF. El capítulo seis describe las principales conclusiones de la tesis y las líneas futuras. ABSTRACT The trend in the telecommunications sector during the last years follow a high increase in the transmission rate of voice, video and mainly in data. To achieve the required levels of data rates, the new modulation standards demand higher bandwidths and have a higher peak to average power ratio (PAPR). These specifications have a direct impact in the low efficiency of the RFPA. An additional factor for the low efficiency of the RFPA is in the power amplifier design. Traditionally, linear classes have been used for the implementation of the power amplifier as they comply with the technical requirements. However, they have a low efficiency, especially in the operating range of signals with a high PAPR. The low efficiency of the transmitter has additional disadvantages as an increase in the cost and size as the cooling system needs to be increased for a base station and a temperature increase and a lower use time for portable devices. Several solutions have been proposed in the state of the art to improve the efficiency of the transmitter as Outphasing, power combiners or Doherty technique. However, the highest potential of efficiency improvement can be obtained using a modulated power supply for the power amplifier, as in the Envelope Tracking and EER techniques. The Envelope Tracking technique is based on the modulation of the power supply of a linear power amplifier to improve the overall efficiency compared to a fixed voltage supply. In the implementation of this technique an additional stage is needed, the envelope amplifier, that will increase the complexity of the RFPA. However, the efficiency of the linear power amplifier will increase and, if designed properly, the RFPA efficiency will be improved. The advantages of this technique are that the envelope amplifier design does not require such a high bandwidth as the envelope signal and that in the integration process a perfect synchronization between envelope and phase is not required. The Envelope Elimination and Restoration (EER) technique, known also as Kahn’s technique, is based on the simultaneous modulation of envelope and phase using a high efficiency switched power amplifier. This solution has the highest potential in terms of the efficiency improvement but also has the most challenging specifications. This solution, proposed in 1952, has not been successfully implemented until the last two decades due to the high demanding requirements for each of the stages as well as for the highly demanding processing and computation capabilities needed. At the system level, a very precise synchronization is required between the envelope and phase paths to avoid a linearity decrease of the system. Several techniques are used to compensate the non-linear effects in amplitude and phase and to improve the rejection of the out of band noise as predistortion, feedback and feed-forward. In order to obtain a high bandwidth and efficient RFPA using either ET or EER, the envelope amplifier stage will have a critical importance. The requirements for this stage are very demanding in terms of bandwidth, linearity and quality of the transmitted signal. Additionally the efficiency should be as high as possible, as the envelope amplifier has a direct impact in the efficiency of the overall system. This thesis is focused on the envelope amplifier stage and the main objective will be the development of high efficiency envelope amplifier solutions that comply with the requirements of the RFPA application. The design and optimization of an envelope amplifier for a RFPA application is a highly referenced research topic, and many solutions that address the envelope amplifier and the RFPA design and optimization can be found in the state of the art. From a high level classification, multiple and single stage envelope amplifiers can be identified. Envelope amplifiers for EER based on multiple stage architecture combine a linear assisted stage and a switched-mode stage, either in a series or parallel configuration, to achieve a very high performance RFPA. However, the complexity of the system increases and the efficiency improvement is limited. A single-stage envelope amplifier has the advantage of a lower complexity but in order to achieve the required bandwidth the switching frequency has to be highly increased, and therefore the performance and the efficiency are degraded. Several techniques are used to overcome this limitation, as the design of integrated circuits that are capable of switching at very high rates or the use of topological solutions, high order filters or a combination of both to reduce the switching frequency requirements. In this thesis it is originally proposed the use of the ripple cancellation technique, applied to a synchronous buck converter, to reduce the switching frequency requirements compared to a conventional buck converter for an envelope amplifier application. Three original proposals for the envelope amplifier stage, based on the ripple cancellation technique, are presented and one of the solutions has been experimentally validated and integrated in the complete amplifier, showing a high total efficiency increase compared to other solutions of the state of the art. Additionally, the proposed envelope amplifier has been integrated in the complete RFPA achieving a high total efficiency. The design process optimization has also been analyzed in this thesis. Due to the different figures of merit between the envelope amplifier and the complete RFPA it is very difficult to obtain an optimized design for the envelope amplifier. To reduce the design uncertainties, a design tool has been developed to provide an estimation of the RFPA figures of merit based on the design of the envelope amplifier. The main contributions of this thesis are: The application of the ripple cancellation technique to a synchronous buck converter for an envelope amplifier application to achieve a high efficiency and high bandwidth EER RFPA. A 66% reduction of the switching frequency, validated experimentally, compared to the equivalent conventional buck converter. This reduction has been reflected in an improvement in the efficiency between 12.4% and 16%, validated for the specifications of this work. The synchronous buck converter with two cascaded ripple cancellation networks (RCNs) topology and design to improve the robustness and the performance of the envelope amplifier. The combination of a phase-shifted multi-phase buck converter with the ripple cancellation technique to improve the envelope amplifier switching frequency to signal bandwidth ratio. The optimization of the control loop of an envelope amplifier to improve the performance of the open loop design for the conventional and ripple cancellation buck converter. A simulation tool to optimize the envelope amplifier design process. Using the envelope amplifier design as the input data, the main figures of merit of the complete RFPA for an EER application are obtained for several digital modulations. The successful integration of the envelope amplifier based on a RCN buck converter in the complete RFPA obtaining a high efficiency integrated amplifier. The efficiency obtained is between 57% and 70.6% for an output power of 14.4W and 40.7W respectively. The main figures of merit for the different modulations have been characterized and analyzed. This thesis is organized in six chapters. In Chapter 1 is provided an introduction of the RFPA application, where the main problems, challenges and solutions are described. In Chapter 2 the technical background for radiofrequency power amplifiers (RF) is presented. The main techniques to implement an RFPA are described and analyzed. The state of the art techniques to improve performance of the RFPA are identified as well as the main sources of no-linearities for the RFPA. Chapter 3 is focused on the envelope amplifier stage. The three different solutions proposed originally in this thesis for the envelope amplifier are presented and analyzed. The control stage design is analyzed and an optimization is proposed both for the conventional and the RCN buck converter. Chapter 4 is focused in the design and optimization process of the envelope amplifier and a design tool to evaluate the envelope amplifier design impact in the RFPA is presented. Chapter 5 shows the integration process of the complete amplifier. Chapter 6 addresses the main conclusions of the thesis and the future work.

Switching mode power amplifier for bluetooth applications

Modern fully integrated transceivers architectures, require circuits with low area, low cost, low power, and high efficiency. A key block in modern transceivers is the power amplifier, which is deeply studied in this thesis. First, we study the implementation of a classical Class-A amplifier, describing the basic operation of an RF power amplifier, and analysing the influence of the real models of the reactive components in its operation. Secondly, the Class-E amplifier is deeply studied. The different types of implementations are reviewed and theoretical equations are derived and compared with simulations. There were selected four modes of operation for the Class-E amplifier, in order to perform the implementation of the output stage, and the subsequent comparison of results. This led to the selection of the mode with the best trade-off between efficiency and harmonics distortion, lower power consumption and higher output power. The optimal choice was a parallel circuit containing an inductor with a finite value. To complete the implementation of the PA in switching mode, a driver was implemented. The final block (output stage together with the driver) got 20 % total efficiency (PAE) transmitting 8 dBm output power to a 50 W load with a total harmonic distortion (THD) of 3 % and a total consumption of 28 mW. All implementations are designed using standard 130 nm CMOS technology. The operating frequency is 2.4 GHz and it was considered an 1.2 V DC power supply. The proposed circuit is intended to be used in a Bluetooth transmitter, however, it has a wider range of applications.

Painokoneen suorituskykyanalyysi tuotannon tehokkuuden arvioimiseksi ja hinnoittelupäätösten tueksi

Työn tavoite on analysoida kirjapainon offsetrotaatiopainokoneen painoyksikön yksi, eli pienen linjan, ja painoyksiköiden kaksi ja kolme muodostaman painokoneen, eli ison linjan, suorituskykyä vuosien 1996-1997 ja vuosien 2002-2006 tuotantotietojen perusteella. Analyysit on tehty erikseen molemmille linjoille vuosien 1996-1997 ja vuosien 2002-2006 osalta, koska nettoajonopeudet ovat laskeneet molemmilla painolinjoilla huomattavasti vuosista 1996 ja 1997. Suorituskykyanalyysien perusteella ei löytynyt mitään teknistä tai töiden ominaisuuksista johtuvaa syytä ajonopeuksien huomattavaan laskuun. Työssä on tutkittu painotyön ominaisuuksien perusteella määräytyvän tuotantotavan, painopaperin ja painosmäärän vaikutusta ajonopeuteen ja sitä kautta toteutuneeseen ajohintaan. Suorituskykyanalyysien pohjalta on muodostettu molemmille linjoille erityyppisten tuotteiden sisäiseen hinnoitteluun sopivat regressiomallit, joilla voidaan parhaiten estimoida erilaisten tuotteiden ajohintoja. Työssä on tarkasteltu lyhyesti myös painokoneen kuntoonlaitto- ja häiriöaikojen sekä hukkamäärien kehitystä, koska ajonopeus pelkästään ei anna oikeaa kuvaa koko tuotannon tehokkuudesta. Kokonaistehokkuuden parantaminen on korkeiden ajonopeuksien lisäksi edellytys kirjapainon kilpailukyvyn säilyttämiseksi.

Jäänhoitokoneen voimansiirron kehittäminen

Diplomityön tavoitteena oli tutkia jäänhoitokoneen nykyisen voimanlähteen mahdollista korvaamista eri tekniikkaan perustuvilla voimanlähteillä. Teoriaosassa tutustutaan jäänhoidon historiaan eli mistä tarve jäänhoitokoneiden suunnitteluun ja valmistukseen on syntynyt. Samoin esitellään jäähoidon koko prosessi ja eri käyttövoimanlähteet mitä maailmalla jäänhoitokoneissa on käytössä. Käytännön osuus keskittyy aluksi esittelemään jäänhoitokoneen nykyisen toimintaperiaatteen, siinä käytetyt komponentit sekä kartoittaa koko järjestelmän heikkoudet ja vahvuudet. Osuudessa selvitetään myös kahden nykyisestä poikkeavien voimanlähteiden toimintaperiaatteet sekä niiden mahdollisuudesta korvata jäänhoitokoneen nykyinen järjestelmä. Näiden osalta selvitetään myös vaihtoehtoisten tekniikoiden heikkoudet ja vahvuudet. Työn tuloksena selvisi, että uudet korvaavat voimanlähteet ovat vielä kehitysvaiheessa eikä siis vielä tarpeeksi valmiita, suorituskykyisiä tai saasteettomia korvaamaan nykyistä 0-päästöistä sähkömoottorijärjestelmää. Sen sijaan kehitysehdotuksena syntyi idea nykyisen järjestelmän optimoimisesta paremman hyötysuhteen ja sitä mukaa akkujen eliniän parantamiseksi.

Kestomagneettitahtigeneraattorin kannattavuustarkastelu vesivoimalaitoksen saneerauksen yhteydessä

Työssä vertaillaan kestomagneettitahtigeneraattorin kannattavuutta suhteessa perinteiseen erillismagnetoituun tahtigeneraattoriin. Sähkön markkinahinnan nousu tulevaisuudessa, pakottaa etsimään uusia ratkaisuja jo olemassa olevien vesivoimalaitosten hyötysuhteen parantamiseksi. Hyötysuhteeseen vaikuttavat laitoksen mekaaniset ja sähköiset häviöt. Työn kohteena olevan vesivoimalaitoksen saneeraus on ajankohtainen lähivuosina, ja samalla avautuu mahdollisuus vaihtaa myös vanha erillismagnetoitu tahtigeneraattori uudempaan kestomagneeteilla toteutettuun. Työssä tarkastellaan kalliimman investoinnin kannattavuutta suhteessa kasvavaan energian tuotantoon. Tarkastelujaksolla lisääntyneen vuosituotannon osuuden rahallista arvoa verrataan investointihetken kustannuksiin. Työn edetessä havaittiin, että virtaamamäärän lisäyksellä on vahva rooli kannattavuutta laskettaessa. Pienillä virtaamilla ei saavuteta riittävää tuottoa ilman mekaanisen hyötysuhteen parantamista. Pelkästään generaattorityypin vaihto ei tällä hetkellä kannata, kun nykyisellä generaattorilla on käyttöaikaa jäljellä kymmeniä vuosia. Tilanne voi muuttua kannattavaksi esimerkiksi äkillisen generaattorivaurion myötä.

Numerical simulation of rotor-stator interaction and tip clearance flow in centrifugal compressors

The effect of the tip clearance and vaneless diffuser width on the stage performance and flow fields of a centrifugal compressor were studied numerically and results were compared to the experimental measurements. The diffuser width was changed by moving the shroud side of the diffuser axially and six tip clearances size from 0.5 to 3 mm were studied. Moreover, the effects of rotor-stator interaction on the diffuser and impeller flow fields and performance were studied. Also transient simulations were carried out in order to investigate the influence of the interaction on the impeller and diffuser performance parameters. It was seen that pinch could improve the performance and it help to get more uniform flow at exit and less back flow from diffuser to the impeller.

Sanitation assessment of wastewater treated by stabilization ponds for potential reuse in agricultural irrigation sanitation assessment

Wastewater reuse has become an important alternative to agricultural irrigation; on the other hand, it poses concern with regard to public health. Total coliform and Escherichia coli concentration, presence of helminth eggs and Salmonella, and physical-chemical parameters were evaluated in raw and treated wastewater. Chemical and biochemical oxygen demand removal efficiency was 74.6 and 77.9%, respectively. As for organic nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total suspended solids, total efficiency removal was 17.4, 12.5, and 32.9%, respectively. The average density of total coliforms and E. coli was 3.5 x 10(9) and 1.8 x 10(8) MPN/100 mL and 1.1 x 10(7) MPN/100 mL and 3.9 x 10(5) MPN/100 mL for raw and treated wastewater, respectively. Ascaris eggs were observed in 80.8% of the samples collected, and viable eggs in 42.3% of the samples. Salmonella was detected in 36.4% of the samples. The values observed in treated wastewater did not show the adequate bacteriological quality, as recommended by World Health Organization (Geneva, Switzerland). Therefore, additional measures should be taken to achieve an improved microbiological and parasitological quality.

Eficiência de um hidrociclone de geometria rietema para pré-filtragem de água para irrigação

O hidrociclone é um equipamento amplamente utilizado pela indústria em processos envolvendo separação sólido-líquido, porém ainda pouco utilizado na agricultura irrigada no Brasil. Neste trabalho, avaliou-se o desempenho deste equipamento como pré-filtrante de partículas sólidas, oriundas dos processos erosivos e do assoreamento dos recursos hídricos. Os testes foram realizados com um hidrociclone de geometria Rietema, possuindo diâmetro de 19,2 cm na parte cilíndrica, operando com vazões variando entre 10 m³ h-1 e 27 m³ h-1. Os materiais particulados usados em suspensão foram: solo franco-argiloso e areia de rio. Os resultados mostraram que a perda de carga máxima média foi de 52 kPa e 47 kPa para as suspensões aquosas de areia e solo, respectivamente. Seu melhor desempenho ocorreu operando com suspensão aquosa de areia, apresentando eficiência total de 92,3% para a vazão de 26,9 m³ h-1. Concluiu-se que o equipamento avaliado é mais eficiente para remoção de partículas de areia, podendo ser utilizado como pré-filtro em sistemas de irrigação.

Efeito da palpação retal e da frequencia de inseminações na fertilidade de éguas inseminadas com sêmen fresco diluído

Forty-two mares were randomly assigned in a 3 x 2 factorial experiment which included three intervals between rectal palpation (6/6h, 12/12h and once a day palpation) and two frequencies of inseminations (daily or every other day). The mares were inseminated with semen from only one stallion, diluted in minimal contamination extender. There were no differences in the conception rate at first cycle, conception/cycle, conception total, efficiency of pregnancy in either system of rectal palpation, independently of the frequency of insemination utilized. Also there were no differences among intervals of rectal palpation concerning the following reproductive characteristics: number of cycles/mare, cycles/pregnant mare, cycles/ pregnancy, pregnancy/cycle, number of inseminations/mare, inseminations/ pregnant mare and insemination/open mare. There were no differences in pregnancy rate at first cycle, pregnancy rate/cycle, pregnancy rate total and efficiency of pregnancy between the two frequency of insemination. However, the frequency of insemination influenced the number of inseminations/mare, number of inseminations/ pregnant mare and inseminations/open mare. The highest values were observed with the mares inseminated daily. Therefore, insemination every other day can be recommended. If necessary the mare may be palpated rectally at intervals of six hours without reducing the pregnancy rate.

Desempenho de um hidrociclione de geometria rietema como pré filtro para sistemas de irrigação

Pós-graduação em Agronomia (Produção Vegetal) - FCAV

Conservazione del seme sortato di suino

Gli spermatozoi di suino sottoposti alla procedura di sessaggio mediante citofluorimetria presentano una serie di modificazioni morfo-funzionali che compromettono nel tempo la loro sopravvivenza e la capacità fecondante. Questi spermatozoi, inoltre, a causa della sensibilità ai danni indotti dalla crioconservazione, vengono solitamente conservati allo stato liquido a 15-17°C, con conseguente ulteriore peggioramento nel tempo della qualità delle cellule spermatiche sessate. Lo scopo della ricerca è stato quello di valutare le modificazioni di alcune caratteristiche morfo-funzionali degli spermatozoi in seguito a sex-sorting e conseguente conservazione. Successivamente si è cercato di migliorare i parametri qualitativi del seme sessato mediante l’aggiunta di sostanze antiossidanti e la messa a punto di una nuova metodica di conservazione. I risultati ottenuti hanno evidenziato che la procedura di sessaggio e la conseguente conservazione per 24-26 ore a 15°C hanno indotto un peggioramento significativo delle caratteristiche morfo-funzionali (vitalità, integrità acrosomiale, quantità e distribuzione dell’Hsp70, capacità fecondante). Mentre l’azione degli antiossidanti non si è rivelata efficace nel miglioramento della qualità degli spermatozoi durante le fasi di colorazione e passaggio attraverso il citofluorimetro, l’azione congiunta del plasma seminale e degli antiossidanti superossido-dismutasi ed epigallocatechina-3-gallato ha indotto un miglioramento significativo della vitalità degli spermatozoi. Per la conservazione del seme di suino è stata testata la tecnica di incapsulazione in membrane di alginato di bario che permette, durante l’inseminazione artificiale, un rilascio graduale degli spermatozoi e l’utilizzo di un quantitativo inferiore di materiale seminale. L’applicazione di tale tecnica per la conservazione degli spermatozoi di suino sessati non sembra provocare un calo significativo della vitalità, dell’integrità acrosomiale e dell’efficienza totale di fecondazione rispetto al seme sortato e conservato diluito suggerendo futuri studi in vivo. Una migliore conoscenza dei danni indotti da queste tecnologie e la loro minimizzazione potrà stimolare in futuro l’utilizzo su vasta scala del seme sessato nel suino.

Design and optimization of turbo-expanders for organic rankine cycles

In a world focused on the need to produce energy for a growing population, while reducing atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide, organic Rankine cycles represent a solution to fulfil this goal. This study focuses on the design and optimization of axial-flow turbines for organic Rankine cycles. From the turbine designer point of view, most of this fluids exhibit some peculiar characteristics, such as small enthalpy drop, low speed of sound, large expansion ratio. A computational model for the prediction of axial-flow turbine performance is developed and validated against experimental data. The model allows to calculate turbine performance within a range of accuracy of ±3%. The design procedure is coupled with an optimization process, performed using a genetic algorithm where the turbine total-to-static efficiency represents the objective function. The computational model is integrated in a wider analysis of thermodynamic cycle units, by providing the turbine optimal design. First, the calculation routine is applied in the context of the Draugen offshore platform, where three heat recovery systems are compared. The turbine performance is investigated for three competing bottoming cycles: organic Rankine cycle (operating cyclopentane), steam Rankine cycle and air bottoming cycle. Findings indicate the air turbine as the most efficient solution (total-to-static efficiency = 0.89), while the cyclopentane turbine results as the most flexible and compact technology (2.45 ton/MW and 0.63 m3/MW). Furthermore, the study shows that, for organic and steam Rankine cycles, the optimal design configurations for the expanders do not coincide with those of the thermodynamic cycles. This suggests the possibility to obtain a more accurate analysis by including the computational model in the simulations of the thermodynamic cycles. Afterwards, the performance analysis is carried out by comparing three organic fluids: cyclopentane, MDM and R245fa. Results suggest MDM as the most effective fluid from the turbine performance viewpoint (total-to-total efficiency = 0.89). On the other hand, cyclopentane guarantees a greater net power output of the organic Rankine cycle (P = 5.35 MW), while R245fa represents the most compact solution (1.63 ton/MW and 0.20 m3/MW). Finally, the influence of the composition of an isopentane/isobutane mixture on both the thermodynamic cycle performance and the expander isentropic efficiency is investigated. Findings show how the mixture composition affects the turbine efficiency and so the cycle performance. Moreover, the analysis demonstrates that the use of binary mixtures leads to an enhancement of the thermodynamic cycle performance.

In silico detection of control signals: mRNA 3′-end-processing sequences in diverse species

We have investigated mRNA 3′-end-processing signals in each of six eukaryotic species (yeast, rice, arabidopsis, fruitfly, mouse, and human) through the analysis of more than 20,000 3′-expressed sequence tags. The use and conservation of the canonical AAUAAA element vary widely among the six species and are especially weak in plants and yeast. Even in the animal species, the AAUAAA signal does not appear to be as universal as indicated by previous studies. The abundance of single-base variants of AAUAAA correlates with their measured processing efficiencies. As found previously, the plant polyadenylation signals are more similar to those of yeast than to those of animals, with both common content and arrangement of the signal elements. In all species examined, the complete polyadenylation signal appears to consist of an aggregate of multiple elements. In light of these and previous results, we present a broadened concept of 3′-end-processing signals in which no single exact sequence element is universally required for processing. Rather, the total efficiency is a function of all elements and, importantly, an inefficient word in one element can be compensated for by strong words in other elements. These complex patterns indicate that effective tools to identify 3′-end-processing signals will require more than consensus sequence identification.

User Effects on Wearable Conformal SCMR System

The performance of a compact, wearable Conformal Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonance (CSCMR) system is studied when the antenna is in the air and is worn on a user’s arm. The wireless powering system consists of the receiver and load elements designed on a printed circuit board that is attached to a polyester fabric band. The wearable antenna achieves high efficiency, has a small volume, and can be easily printed on substrates. Although the user effect on mobile terminal antennas has been studied in detail, absorption losses in wearable antennas have not been widely investigated. Our results show that efficiency of the antenna in free space is 70% and on a user’s arm is 50%. Human tissue in the close proximity of our wearable Conformal SCMR caused a decrease in radiated efficiency and total efficiency. This undesired degradation in antenna efficiency might be attributed to body loss and absorption losses. Our findings can be used as a reference for future studies on wearable devices and their applications, such as health and sports monitoring.

Explaining Economic Growth: Factor Accumulation, Total Factor Productivity Growth, and Production Efficiency Improvement

This paper examines cross-country patterns of economic growth by estimating a stochastic frontier production function for 80 developed and developing countries and decomposing output change into factor accumulation, total factor productivity growth, and production efficiency improvement. In addition, this paper incorporates the quality of inputs in analyzing output growth, where the productivity of capital depends on its average age, while the productivity of labor depends on its average level of education. Our growth decomposition involves five geographic regions - Africa, East Asian, Latin America, South Asia, and the West. Factor growth, especially capital accumulation, generally proves much more important than either the improved quality of factors or total factor productivity growth in explaining output growth. The quality of capital positively and significantly affects output growth in all groups. The quality of labor, however, only possesses a positive and significant effect on output growth in Africa, East Asia, and the West. Labor quality owns a negative and significant effect in Latin America and South Asia.