Sostituzione dell'epicloridrina con derivati del glicerolo nella preparazione di prepolimeri per resine epossidiche bio-based.

La recente e innovativa filosofia della green chemistry che si sta diffondendo nell���industria chimica e l���incombente esaurimento di risorse fossili, stanno indirizzando la ricerca del settore chimico verso la realizzazione di processi sempre pi�� sostenibili. Tra i processi che necessitano maggiormente di questi cambiamenti, vi �� quello della produzione di resine epossidiche che per il 90% �� costituito attualmente da resine a base di bisfenolo-A, neuro tossico e pericoloso per la riproduzione umana, ed epicloridrina cancerogena; entrambi ottenuti da risorse fossili. Per tali motivi, in questo elaborato si �� cercato di sviluppare un processo di sintesi il pi�� possibile ���green���, per l���ottenimento di una molecola derivante da risorse rinnovabili, da sostituire all���epicloridrina nella sintesi di prepolimeri per resine epossidiche bio-based. Lo sviluppo del lavoro �� avvenuto tramite lo studio dei reagenti, solventi e parametri operativi, ottenendo il glicidil tosilato a partire da glicerolo e tosil cloruro attraverso una reazione in sistema bifasico, semplice dal punto di vista pratico e senza l���utilizzo di composti tossici. Il glicidil tosilato �� meno problematico in quanto meno volatile rispetto all���epicloridrina, ed inoltre le prove di reazione con il bisfenolo-A hanno portato all���ottenimento del prepolimero con rese maggiori rispetto a quelle ottenute nelle stesse condizioni con epicloridrina.

Sintesi e caratterizzazione di prepolimeri per resine epossidiche derivanti da fonti rinnovabili e naturali attraverso un processo a basso impatto ambientale

La sostituzione di materie prime provenienti da risorse fossili con biomasse rinnovabili, utilizzando un processo a basso impatto ambientale, �� una delle pi�� importanti sfide della "Green Chemistry". Allo stesso tempo, la sintesi di resine epossidiche fornisce la chiave per la realizzazione di materiali ad alto valore aggiunto. Tuttavia, ad oggi, il 90% della produzione di resine epossidiche �� basato sull'uso di bisfenolo A, che ha effetti di xenoestrogeno, ed epicloridrina, tossica e cancerogena. Su queste basi, �� stata individuata una strategia sintetica per la sintesi di prepolimeri innovativi per resine epossidiche, che utilizza come substrato di reazione diidrossibenzeni di origine naturale ed evita l'uso di epicloridrina e altri reagenti tossici o pericolosi. La suddetta strategia sintetica �� basata sulla sequenza: allilazione dei diidrossibenzeni - epossidazione dei doppi legami ottenuti. In questa procedura non vengono utilizzati drastiche condizioni di reazione e il solvente �� acqua, con una catalisi di trasferimento di fase o, in aggiunte di acetonitrile, in un sistema bifasico. La resa complessiva dei due ���step��� dipende dalla posizione dei due ossidrili nei diidrossibenzeni. Il reagente che porta la resa massima �� l���idrochinone (1,4 diidrossibenzene), che, come riportato in letteratura, permette la formazione di resine epossidiche con propriet�� simili alle resine di epicloridrina e bisfenolo A. The substitution of raw materials from fossil fuels with renewable biomass using a low environmental impact process is one of the greatest challenges of the "Green Chemistry". At the same time, the synthesis of epoxy resins provides the key to the realization of high added value materials. However, 90% of the production of epoxy resins is based on the use of bisphenol A, a xenoestrogen, and epichlorohydrin, that is toxic and carcinogenic. On these bases, a synthetic strategy for the synthesis of innovative prepolymers of epoxy resins, that uses dihydroxybenzenes of natural origin as reaction substrates and avoids the use of epichlorohydrin and other toxic or dangerous reagents has been identified. The above synthetic strategy is based on the sequence: allylation of dihydroxybenzenes - epoxidation of the double bonds obtained. In this procedure, drastic reaction conditions are dismissed and the solvent used is water with a phase transfer catalysis or, in addition, acetonitrile in a biphasic system. The overall yield of the two steps depends on the position of the two hydroxyls of the dihydroxybenzenes. The reagent that leads to the highest yield is hydroquinone (1,4 dihydroxybenzene), which, as reported in literature, allows the formation of epoxy resins with similar properties to the resins from bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin.

Derivati naturali dell'acido difenolico per la sostituzione del bisfenolo A

La produzione di materie plastiche da fonti rinnovabili �� oggi uno dei principali obiettivi della chimica dei polimeri. Anche se i materiali termoplastici da fonte ���bio��� sono stati gi�� ampiamente studiati, non si pu�� affermare lo stesso per i termoidurenti. Le resine epossidiche sono ampiamente usate come rivestimenti, adesivi e materiali strutturali grazie alle loro eccezionali propriet�� meccaniche e alla buona resistenza al calore. Nonostante ci��, la ricerca svolta in questo campo su tali materiali �� molto limitata e la loro produzione deriva ancora dalla reazione tra epicloridrina, cancerogena, e bisfenolo A, sospettato di avere effetti sul sistema ormonale. Per questo, la possibilit�� di trovare un sostituto per il bisfenolo A �� un punto cruciale della chimica per dare una risposta eco-sostenibile alla domanda dei consumatori. L���acido difenolo �� stato identificato come un buon canditato per la sostituzione del bisfenolo A, grazie alla similarit�� delle loro strutture. Dal momento che esso deriva dalla reazione tra acido levulinico, derivante da biomassa e fenolo, �� possibile considerarlo un reagente di origine bio. Lo scopo di questo lavoro �� quello di sostituire il fenolo con composti fenolici di origine naturale come m-cresolo, guaiacolo, catecolo e resorcinolo. Le molecole risultanti saranno confrontate con il bisfenolo A per ci�� che concerne la possibilit�� di formare i rispettivi glicidil eteri tramite reazione con epicloridrina. Questo permetterebbe la formazione di un pre-polimero epossidico proveniente da fonte rinnovabile in un prossimo futuro.

Rinforzo di resine epossidiche con grafene ed ossido di grafene come matrici per compositi

I materiali compositi a base di fibra di carbonio svolgono un ruolo fondamentale fra i materiali avanzati ad alte prestazioni. Nell���ottica di migliorare le propriet�� di resine epossidiche impiegate come matrice per tali compositi, �� stato studiato l���effetto che nanocariche come il grafene e l���ossido di grafene hanno sulle prestazioni di una resina commerciale.

Caratterizzazione di resine epossidiche per materiali compositi realizzati in infusione ad alta pressione

I materiali compositi, grazie alla combinazione delle propriet�� dei singoli componenti di cui sono costituiti, in particolare la coesistenza di elevate caratteristiche meccaniche e pesi ridotti, rivestono da tempo un ruolo fondamentale nell���industria aeronautica e nel settore delle competizioni automobilistiche e motociclistiche. La possibilit�� di progettare i materiali in funzione della loro applicazione, unita alla riduzione dei costi di produzione, permette una crescente diffusione del loro utilizzo e l���ampliamento delle applicazioni a moltissimi altri settori, sia per componenti di tipo strutturale, sia di tipo estetico. L���obiettivo della presente tesi �� analizzare, attraverso una campagna sperimentale, il comportamento di diversi materiali realizzati con la tecnica di produzione HP-RTM, tramite prove di taglio interlaminare e flessione, al fine di verificare l���applicabilit�� di tale processo a prodotti strutturali, in modo da velocizzare i tempi di produzione e quindi di abbassare i costi, mantenendo al tempo stesso elevate propriet�� meccaniche. Lo scopo di questa campagna quindi �� fornire, attraverso lo studio di 30 serie di provini, il materiale migliore in termini di resistenza a flessione e taglio interlaminare; inoltre per ogni tipologia di materiale vengono descritte le diverse distribuzioni dei valori di rottura riscontrati, in modo da lasciare al progettista pi�� libert�� possibile nella scelta del materiale in base alle specifiche richieste per una determinata applicazione. Questo studio permette di analizzare l���influenza di ogni singolo componente (tipo di fibra, tipo di binder, presenza o assenza di IMR), all���interno della stessa resina.

Caratterizzazione dopo invecchiamento termico e igroscopico di compositi FRP realizzati con differenti resine epossidiche

L'elaborato tratta, inizialmente, delle generalit�� dei materiali compositi, facendo particolare riferimento agli elementi che contraddistinguono i materiali protagonisti di questa campagna sperimentale (resine epossidiche, fibre, IMR, binder). Successivamente si passa alla trattazione delle varie tecniche usate per produrre un componente in materiale composito, soffermandosi maggiormente sulla tecnica dell���HP-RTM. Inoltre, poich�� nell���elaborazione dei risultati ottenuti sono utilizzati curve gaussiane e istogrammi, �� inserito un capitolo con informazioni generali sulla statistica e sulle principali distribuzioni di probabilit��. Sono, infine, elencati e spiegati i vari materiali utilizzati, con le varie apparecchiature e i due metodi di invecchiamento, igroscopico e termico.

Preparation of Industrially Important Hydroxy Acids and Diacids from 2,2-Disubstituted Propane-1,3-Diols and Linear Primary Diols by Green Chemistry Methods

Environmentally benign and economical methods for the preparation of industrially important hydroxy acids and diacids were developed. The carboxylic acids, used in polyesters, alkyd resins, and polyamides, were obtained by the oxidation of the corresponding alcohols with hydrogen peroxide or air catalyzed by sodium tungstate or supported noble metals. These oxidations were carried out using water as a solvent. The alcohols are also a useful alternative to the conventional reactants, hydroxyaldehydes and cycloalkanes. The oxidation of 2,2-disubstituted propane-1,3-diols with hydrogen peroxide catalyzed by sodium tungstate afforded 2,2-disubstituted 3-hydroxypropanoic acids and 1,1-disubstituted ethane-1,2-diols as products. A computational study of the Baeyer-Villiger rearrangement of the intermediate 2,2-disubstituted 3-hydroxypropanals gave in-depth data of the mechanism of the reaction. Linear primary diols having chain length of at least six carbons were easily oxidized with hydrogen peroxide to linear dicarboxylic acids catalyzed by sodium tungstate. The Pt/C catalyzed air oxidation of 2,2-disubstituted propane-1,3-diols and linear primary diols afforded the highest yield of the corresponding hydroxy acids, while the Pt, Bi/C catalyzed oxidation of the diols afforded the highest yield of the corresponding diacids. The mechanism of the promoted oxidation was best described by the ensemble effect, and by the formation of a complex of the hydroxy and the carboxy groups of the hydroxy acids with bismuth atoms. The Pt, Bi/C catalyzed air oxidation of 2-substituted 2-hydroxymethylpropane-1,3-diols gave 2-substituted malonic acids by the decarboxylation of the corresponding triacids. Activated carbon was the best support and bismuth the most efficient promoter in the air oxidation of 2,2-dialkylpropane-1,3-diols to diacids. In oxidations carried out in organic solvents barium sulfate could be a valuable alternative to activated carbon as a non-flammable support. In the Pt/C catalyzed air oxidation of 2,2-disubstituted propane-1,3-diols to 2,2-disubstituted 3-hydroxypropanoic acids the small size of the 2-substituents enhanced the rate of the oxidation. When the potential of platinum of the catalyst was not controlled, the highest yield of the diacids in the Pt, Bi/C catalyzed air oxidation of 2,2-dialkylpropane-1,3-diols was obtained in the regime of mass transfer. The most favorable pH of the reaction mixture of the promoted oxidation was 10. The reaction temperature of 40��C prevented the decarboxylation of the diacids.

Nanocatalysis and Prospects of Green Chemistry

Designing and developing ideal catalyst paves the way to green chemistry. The fields of catalysis and nanoscience have been inextricably linked to each other for a long time. Thanks to the recent advances in characterization techniques, the old technology has been revisited with a new scope. The last decade has witnessed a flood of research activity in the field of nanocatalysis, with most of the studies focusing on the effect of size on catalytic properties. This led to the development of much greener catalysts with higher activity, selectivity and greater ease of separation from the reaction medium. This Minireview describes the emerging trends in the field of nanocatalysis with implications towards green chemistry and sustainability.

Laccase bio-grafting a versatile modification tool from green chemistry technologies

Today more than 99% of plastics are petroleum-based because of availability and cost of the raw material. The durability of these disposed plastics contributes to the environmental problems as waste and their persistence in the environment causes deleterious effects on the ecosystem. Environmental pollution awareness and the demand for green technology have drawn considerable attention of both academia and industry into biodegradable polymers. In this regard green chemistry technology has the potential to provide solution to this problematic issue. Laccase bio-grafting has recently been the focus of green chemistry technologies due to the growing environmental concerns, legal restrictions and increasing availability of scientific knowledge. In the last several years, research covering various applications of laccases has been increased rapidly particularly in the field of grafting. In principle, laccase-assisted graft co-polymerization may impart a variety of new functionalities to a polymer. The modified polymers through grafting have a bright future and their development is practically boundless. In present work, novel biodegradable graft copolymers combining the advantages of bacterial cellulose backbone and PHB side chains will be prepared by introducing enzymatic grafting technique. The present research will be a first step in the biopolymer modification. To date no report has been found in literature explaining the enzymatic grafting of PHAs. The technique would also provide an efficient modulation approach to improve the biodegradability and biocompatibility of the graft copolymer. The newly grafted copolymers will exhibit unique functionalities with wider range of potential applications mainly in tissue engineering, biosensors, pharmaceutical industry (drug delivery systems) and bio-plastics.

Use of solvents and environmental friendly materials for applications in Green Chemistry

The present Thesis studies three alternative solvent groups as sustainable replacement of traditional organic solvents. Some aspects of fluorinated solvents, supercritical fluids and ionic liquids, have been analysed with a critical approach and their effective ���greenness��� has been evaluated from the points of view of the synthesis, the properties and the applications. In particular, the attention has been put on the environmental and human health issues, evaluating the eco-toxicity, the toxicity and the persistence, to underline that applicability and sustainability are subjects with equal importance. The ���green��� features of fluorous solvents and supercritical fluids are almost well-established; in particular supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) is probably the ���greenest��� solvent among the alternative solvent systems developed in the last years, enabling to combine numerous advantages both from the point of view of industrial/technological applications and eco-compatibility. In the Thesis the analysis of these two classes of alternative solvents has been mainly focused on their applicability, rather than the evaluation of their environmental impact. Specifically they have been evaluated as alternative media for non-aqueous biocatalysis. For this purpose, the hydrophobic ion pairing (HIP), which allows solubilising enzymes in apolar solvents by an ion pairing between the protein and a surfactant, has been investigated as effective enzymatic derivatisation technique to improve the catalytic activity under homogeneous conditions in non conventional media. The results showed that the complex enzyme-surfactant was much more active both in fluorous solvents and in supercritical carbon dioxide than the native form of the enzyme. Ionic liquids, especially imidazolium salts, have been proposed some years ago as ���fully green��� alternative solvents; however this epithet does not take into account several ���brown��� aspects such as their synthesis from petro-chemical starting materials, their considerable eco-toxicity, toxicity and resistance to biodegradation, and the difficulty of clearly outline applications in which ionic liquids are really more advantageous than traditional solvents. For all of these reasons in this Thesis a critical analysis of ionic liquids has been focused on three main topics: i) alternative synthesis by introducing structural moieties which could reduce the toxicity of the most known liquid salts, and by using starting materials from renewable resources; ii) on the evaluation of their environmental impact through eco-toxicological tests (Daphnia magna and Vibrio fischeri acute toxicity tests, and algal growth inhibition), toxicity tests (MTT test, AChE inhibition and LDH release tests) and fate and rate of aerobic biodegradation in soil and water; iii) and on the demonstration of their effectiveness as reaction media in organo-catalysis and as extractive solvents in the recovery of vegetable oil from terrestrial and aquatic biomass. The results about eco-toxicity tests with Daphnia magna, Vibrio fischeri and algae, and toxicity assay using cultured cell lines, clearly indicate that the difference in toxicity between alkyl and oxygenated cations relies in differences of polarity, according to the general trend of decreasing toxicity by decreasing the lipophilicity. Independently by the biological approach in fact, all the results are in agreement, showing a lower toxicity for compounds with oxygenated lateral chains than for those having purely alkyl lateral chains. These findings indicate that an appropriate choice of cation and anion structures is important not only to design the IL with improved and suitable chemico-physical properties but also to obtain safer and eco-friendly ILs. Moreover there is a clear indication that the composition of the abiotic environment has to be taken into account when the toxicity of ILs in various biological test systems is analysed, because, for example, the data reported in the Thesis indicate a significant influence of salinity variations on algal toxicity. Aerobic biodegradation of four imidazolium ionic liquids, two alkylated and two oxygenated, in soil was evaluated for the first time. Alkyl ionic liquids were shown to be biodegradable over the 6 months test period, and in contrast no significant mineralisation was observed with oxygenated derivatives. A different result was observed in the aerobic biodegradation of alkylated and oxygenated pyridinium ionic liquids in water because all the ionic liquids were almost completely degraded after 10 days, independently by the number of oxygen in the lateral chain of the cation. The synthesis of new ionic liquids by using renewable feedstock as starting materials, has been developed through the synthesis of furan-based ion pairs from furfural. The new ammonium salts were synthesised in very good yields, good purity of the products and wide versatility, combining low melting points with high decomposition temperatures and reduced viscosities. Regarding the possible applications as surfactants and biocides, furan-based salts could be a valuable alternative to benzyltributylammonium salts and benzalkonium chloride that are produced from non-renewable resources. A new procedure for the allylation of ketones and aldehydes with tetraallyltin in ionic liquids was developed. The reaction afforded high yields both in sulfonate-containing ILs and in ILs without sulfonate upon addition of a small amount of sulfonic acid. The checked reaction resulted in peculiar chemoselectivity favouring aliphatic substrates towards aromatic ketones and good stereoselectivity in the allylation of levoglucosenone. Finally ILs-based systems could be easily and successfully recycled, making the described procedure environmentally benign. The potential role of switchable polarity solvents as a green technology for the extraction of vegetable oil from terrestrial and aquatic biomass has been investigated. The extraction efficiency of terrestrial biomass rich in triacylglycerols, as soy bean flakes and sunflower seeds, was comparable to those of traditional organic solvents, being the yield of vegetable oils recovery very similar. Switchable polarity solvents as been also exploited for the first time in the extraction of hydrocarbons from the microalga Botryococcus braunii, demonstrating the efficiency of the process for the extraction of both dried microalgal biomass and directly of the aqueous growth medium. The switchable polarity solvents exhibited better extraction efficiency than conventional solvents, both with dried and liquid samples. This is an important issue considering that the harvest and the dewatering of algal biomass have a large impact on overall costs and energy balance.

Sulfanyl Radical Addition to Alkynes: Revisiting an Old Reaction to Enter the Novel Realms of Green Chemistry, Bioconjugation, and Material Chemistry

In the last decade considerable attention has been devoted to the rewarding use of Green Chemistry in various synthetic processes and applications. Green Chemistry is of special interest in the synthesis of expensive pharmaceutical products, where suitable adoption of ���green��� reagents and conditions is highly desirable. Our project especially focused in a search for new green radical processes which might also find useful applications in the industry. In particular, we have explored the possible adoption of green solvents in radical Thiol-Ene and Thiol-Yne coupling reactions, which to date have been normally performed in ���ordinary��� organic solvents such as benzene and toluene, with the primary aim of applying those coupling reactions to the construction of biological substrates. We have additionally tuned adequate reaction conditions which might enable achievement of highly functionalised materials and/or complex bioconjugation via homo/heterosequence. Furthermore, we have performed suitable theoretical studies to gain useful chemical information concerning mechanistic implications of the use of green solvents in the radical Thiol-Yne coupling reactions.

Optimization of molecular and crystalline forms of drugs, agrochemicals, pesticides in relation to activity, bioavailability, patentability and to the fabrication of polymorphs, solvates, co-crystals with green chemistry methods

This doctorate was funded by the Regione Emilia Romagna, within a Spinner PhD project coordinated by the University of Parma, and involving the universities of Bologna, Ferrara and Modena. The aim of the project was: - Production of polymorphs, solvates, hydrates and co-crystals of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and agrochemicals with green chemistry methods; - Optimization of molecular and crystalline forms of APIs and pesticides in relation to activity, bioavailability and patentability. In the last decades, a growing interest in the solid-state properties of drugs in addition to their solution chemistry has blossomed. The achievement of the desired and/or the more stable polymorph during the production process can be a challenge for the industry. The study of crystalline forms could be a valuable step to produce new polymorphs and/or co-crystals with better physical-chemical properties such as solubility, permeability, thermal stability, habit, bulk density, compressibility, friability, hygroscopicity and dissolution rate in order to have potential industrial applications. Selected APIs (active pharmaceutical ingredients) were studied and their relationship between crystal structure and properties investigated, both in the solid state and in solution. Polymorph screening and synthesis of solvates and molecular/ionic co-crystals were performed according to green chemistry principles. Part of this project was developed in collaboration with chemical/pharmaceutical companies such as BASF (Germany) and UCB (Belgium). We focused on on the optimization of conditions and parameters of crystallization processes (additives, concentration, temperature), and on the synthesis and characterization of ionic co-crystals. Moreover, during a four-months research period in the laboratories of Professor Nair Rodriguez-Hormedo (University of Michigan), the stability in aqueous solution at the equilibrium of ionic co-crystals (ICCs) of the API piracetam was investigated, to understand the relationship between their solid-state and solution properties, in view of future design of new crystalline drugs with predefined solid and solution properties.

Sustainable materials: The business case for green chemistry design practices

Product manufacturers face increasing environmental and human health regulations with certain regulations targeting specific chemicals of concern that must be removed from the supply chain. This study examines a green chemistry approach to choosing between flame retardant alternatives in electronic products during the design phase of product development. An aggregated score based on five criteria was generated for each flame retardant. To address subjectivity and cognitive bias concerns probabilistic sensitivity analysis was applied to the weighting factors used to generate the scores to examine the reliability of the results. The highest scoring flame retardants based on the comprehensive green chemistry approach were different from the flame retardants chosen using cost as the primary selection criteria.