Ammatillinen osaaminen ja täydennyskoulutus : tiedon ja osaamisen leviäminen osallistujien välillä

The goal of my research was to describe how adult students perceive professional knowledge and know-how, and how these diffuse among a group of students during a continuing education program. The goal was also to research the meaning of shared working life experience in improving the professional know-how of the students. My research is positioned in the field of supporting environments for adult learning with an emphasis on interaction between students in social networks. The participants of my research were 31 adult students taking part in continuing education program at the time of my study. I gathered the research data using quantitative and qualitative research methods. Quantitative network enquiry led me to do 9 theme interviews. I analyzed the data using a network analyzing program and a content analyzing method. I examined the whole community of students, the home groups of four students and the main actors who were central for the community. The analysis focused on the distribution network of professional knowledge and know-how, the distribution network of social support and the network of reciprocal interaction. Professional knowledge and know-how that diffuse between adult students in continuing education, is mostly hands-on tips and occupational experience. The factors that promote the distribution of professional experience and know-how are structural ones and factors that emphasize co-operation relationships. The structural factors are participation in adult education and in home groups and also organizational arrangements of learning. The factors that emphasize co-operation relationships are encouragement and doing learning assignments together. The central distributors of professional know-how are adult students who have long working life experience. The meaning of the diffusion of professional experience and know-how for improving professional know-how of a single adult student is in developing his professional identity and adding his social capital. In the social interaction networks, which I studied, more relations exist inside the home groups than between them, which is congruent with earlier researches. My research can be utilized by using its research methods and emphasizing its results in adult education planning and guidance.

Virtuaalimaailmoja valtaamassa : verkko-opetusinnovaation leviäminen koulun maantieteeseen vuosituhannen vaihteessa

Tutkimus käsittelee verkko-opetusinnovaation leviämistä perusasteen ja lukion maantieteeseen vuosina 1998–2004. Työssä sovellettiin opetusinnovaation leviämismallia ja innovaatioiden diffuusioteoriaa. Aineisto hankittiin seitsemänä vuotena kyselylomakkeilla maantieteen verkko-opetuksen edelläkävijäopettajilta, jotka palauttivat 326 lomaketta. Tutkimuksen pääongelmat olivat 1) Millaisia edellytyksiä edelläkävijäopettajilla on käyttää verkko-opetusta koulun maantieteessä? 2) Mitä sovelluksia ja millä tavoin edelläkävijäopettajat käyttävät maantieteen verkko-opetuksessa? 3) Millaisia käyttökokemuksia edelläkävijäopettajat ovat saaneet maantieteen verkko-opetuksesta? Tutkimuksessa havaittiin, että tietokoneiden riittämätön määrä ja puuttuminen aineluokasta vaikeuttivat maantieteen verkko-opetusta. Työssä kehitettiin opettajien digitaalisten mediataitojen kuutiomalli, johon kuuluvat tekniset taidot, informaation prosessointitaidot ja viestintätaidot. Opettajissa erotettiin kolme verkko-opetuksen käyttäjätyyppiä: informaatiohakuiset kevytkäyttäjät, viestintähakuiset peruskäyttäjät ja yhteistyöhakuiset tehokäyttäjät. Verkko-opetukseen liittyi intensiivisiä myönteisiä ja kielteisiä kokemuksia. Se toi iloa ja motivaatiota opiskeluun. Sitä pidettiin rikastuttavana lisänä, joka haluttiin integroida opetukseen hallitusti. Edelläkävijäopettajat ottivat käyttöön tietoverkoissa olevaa informaatiota ja sovelsivat työvälineohjelmia. He pääsivät alkuun todellisuutta jäljittelevien virtuaalimaailmojen: satelliittikuvien toistaman maapallon, digitaalikarttojen ja simulaatioiden käytössä. Opettajat kokeilivat verkon sosiaalisia tiloja reaaliaikaisen viestinnän, keskusteluryhmien ja ryhmätyöohjelmien avulla. Mielikuvitukseen perustuvat virtuaalimaailmat jäivät vähälle sillä opettajat eivät juuri pelanneet viihdepelejä. He omaksuivat virtuaalimaailmoista satunnaisia palasia käytettävissä olevan laite- ja ohjelmavarustuksen mukaan. Virtuaalimaailmojen valtaus eteni tutkimuksen aikana digitaalisen informaation hyödyntämisestä viestintäsovelluksiin ja aloittelevaan yhteistyöhön. Näin opettajat laajensivat virtuaalireviiriään tietoverkkojen dynaamisiksi toimijoiksi ja pääsivät uusin keinoin tyydyttämään ihmisen universaalia tarvetta yhteyteen muiden kanssa. Samalla opettajat valtautuivat informaation kuluttajista sen tuottajiksi, objekteista subjekteiksi. Verkko-opetus avaa koulun maantieteelle huomattavia mahdollisuuksia. Mobiililaitteiden avulla informaatiota voidaan kerätä ja tallentaa maasto-olosuhteissa, ohjelmilla sitä voidaan muuntaa muodosta toiseen. Internetin autenttiset ja ajantasaiset materiaalit tuovat opiskeluun konkretiaa ja kiinnostavuutta, mallit, simulaatiot ja paikkatieto havainnollistavat ilmiöitä. Viestintä- ja yhteistyövälineet sekä sosiaaliset informaatiotilat vahvistavat yhteistyötä. Avainsanat: verkko-opetus, internet, virtuaalimaailmat, maantiede, innovaatiot

Asiakasluokittelun leviäminen ja käyttöönotto autokaupoissa

Digitalisaatio ja lisääntynyt kilpailu ovat luoneet uusia haasteita autoteollisuuden toiminnalle. Tiedon tehokkaamman hyödyntämisen avulla etsitään keinoja myynnin kasvattamiseen, asiakastyytyväisyyden parantamiseen ja uusien asiakkaiden hankintaan. Tämä edellyttää parempaa asiakasymmärrystä ja parempaa asiakasluokittelua. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan asiakkuuksien luokittelua innovaatioiden diffuusion ja institutionalismin teorioiden kautta. Tarkoituksena on selvittää miten asiakkuuksien luokittelu on levinnyt ja otettu käyttöön autokaupoissa ja mitkä tekijät ovat vaikuttaneet leviämiseen. Apututkimuskysymyksinä selvitetään millaisia käytäntöjä asiakasluokitteluun on, ja miten näitä on räätälöity omaan käyttöön. Lisäksi tarkastellaan millaisia vaikutuksia asiakasluokittelulla on ollut autokauppojen näkökulmasta. Tutkimus toteutettiin laadullisena tutkimuksena teemahaastattelun keinoin. Teemahaastattelun avulla haluttiin kuvata selityksiä asiakasluokittelun innovaation diffuusiolle ja institutionaalisille näkökulmille sekä niiden vaikutuksille valikoidussa otoksessa. Käytännössä aineiston kerääminen toteutettiin haastattelemalla viittä Varsinais-Suomessa toimivaa autokaupan toimialan yritystä. Innovaatioiden diffuusion näkökulmasta tarkasteltiin innovaation ominaisuuksia. Leviämiseen vaikuttaneita asioita olivat innovaation suhteelliset hyödyt, soveltuvuus ja monimutkaisuus. Institutionaalisten paineiden osalta vaikuttavia asioita olivat lainsäädännön ajamat pakottavat paineet sekä taloudellisten paineiden tekniset ja funktionaaliset näkökulmat. Lisäksi analyysissä nousi esiin yrityksen omasta liiketoiminnasta lähteneitä käyttöönottoon vaikuttaneita tekijöitä. Johtopäätöksenä voidaan todeta, että sekä innovaation ominaisuudet että institutionaaliset paineet vaikuttavat jossakin määrin asiakkuuksien leviämiseen ja käyttöönottoon. Niiden merkitys asiakasluokittelun tilanteessa vaikuttaa olevan keskittynyt tiettyihin teknisiin tekijöihin. Aineistosta nousi esiin myös muita asiakasluokittelun leviämiseen ja käyttöönottoon vaikuttavia tekijöitä, joiden kautta tavoitellaan taloudellisia hyötyjä, asiakassuhteen kehittämistä sekä uudenlaisia markkinointimenetelmiä. Nämä voidaan lukea yrityksen sisäisiksi tarpeiksi, jotka tukevat uuden institutionalismin näkemystä yrityksen sisäisistä tekijöistä. Asiakasluokittelukäytännöt perustuvat tutkimuksen mukaan tilannekohtaisten tarpeiden mukaisesti muuttuvaan ja kehittävään jaotteluun. Asiakasluokittelun räätälöinti on keskittynyt kerättävän tiedon lisääntymiseen ja tiedon tarkkuuden muutoksiin. Asiakasluokittelulla voi aineiston mukaan olla positiivisia vaikutuksia erityisesti yrityksen tulokseen, asiakastyytyväisyyteen ja markkinoinnin kohdentamiseen.

Asiakasluokittelun leviäminen ja käyttöönotto autokaupoissa

Digitalisaatio ja lisääntynyt kilpailu ovat luoneet uusia haasteita autoteollisuuden toiminnalle. Tiedon tehokkaamman hyödyntämisen avulla etsitään keinoja myynnin kasvattamiseen, asiakastyytyväisyyden parantamiseen ja uusien asiakkaiden hankintaan. Tämä edellyttää parempaa asiakasymmärrystä ja parempaa asiakasluokittelua. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan asiakkuuksien luokittelua innovaatioiden diffuusion ja institutionalismin teorioiden kautta. Tarkoituksena on selvittää miten asiakkuuksien luokittelu on levinnyt ja otettu käyttöön autokaupoissa ja mitkä tekijät ovat vaikuttaneet leviämiseen. Apututkimuskysymyksinä selvitetään millaisia käytäntöjä asiakasluokitteluun on, ja miten näitä on räätälöity omaan käyttöön. Lisäksi tarkastellaan millaisia vaikutuksia asiakasluokittelulla on ollut autokauppojen näkökulmasta. Tutkimus toteutettiin laadullisena tutkimuksena teemahaastattelun keinoin. Teemahaastattelun avulla haluttiin kuvata selityksiä asiakasluokittelun innovaation diffuusiolle ja institutionaalisille näkökulmille sekä niiden vaikutuksille valikoidussa otoksessa. Käytännössä aineiston kerääminen toteutettiin haastattelemalla viittä Varsinais-Suomessa toimivaa autokaupan toimialan yritystä. Innovaatioiden diffuusion näkökulmasta tarkasteltiin innovaation ominaisuuksia. Leviämiseen vaikuttaneita asioita olivat innovaation suhteelliset hyödyt, soveltuvuus ja monimutkaisuus. Institutionaalisten paineiden osalta vaikuttavia asioita olivat lainsäädännön ajamat pakottavat paineet sekä taloudellisten paineiden tekniset ja funktionaaliset näkökulmat. Lisäksi analyysissä nousi esiin yrityksen omasta liiketoiminnasta lähteneitä käyttöönottoon vaikuttaneita tekijöitä. Johtopäätöksenä voidaan todeta, että sekä innovaation ominaisuudet että institutionaaliset paineet vaikuttavat jossakin määrin asiakkuuksien leviämiseen ja käyttöönottoon. Niiden merkitys asiakasluokittelun tilanteessa vaikuttaa olevan keskittynyt tiettyihin teknisiin tekijöihin. Aineistosta nousi esiin myös muita asiakasluokittelun leviämiseen ja käyttöönottoon vaikuttavia tekijöitä, joiden kautta tavoitellaan taloudellisia hyötyjä, asiakassuhteen kehittämistä sekä uudenlaisia markkinointimenetelmiä. Nämä voidaan lukea yrityksen sisäisiksi tarpeiksi, jotka tukevat uuden institutionalismin näkemystä yrityksen sisäisistä tekijöistä. Asiakasluokittelukäytännöt perustuvat tutkimuksen mukaan tilannekohtaisten tarpeiden mukaisesti muuttuvaan ja kehittävään jaotteluun. Asiakasluokittelun räätälöinti on keskittynyt kerättävän tiedon lisääntymiseen ja tiedon tarkkuuden muutoksiin. Asiakasluokittelulla voi aineiston mukaan olla positiivisia vaikutuksia erityisesti yrityksen tulokseen, asiakastyytyväisyyteen ja markkinoinnin kohdentamiseen.

The Influence of Constantinople on Middle Byzantine Architecture (843-1204) : A typological and morphological approach at the provincial level.

The influence of the architecture of the Byzantine capital spread to the Mediterranean provinces with travelling masters and architects. In this study the architecture of the Constantinopolitan School has been detected on the basis of the typology of churches, completed by certain morphological aspects when necessary. The impact of the Constantinopolitan workshops appears to have been more important than previously realized. This research revealed that the Constantinopolitan composite domed inscribed-cross type or cross-in-square spread everywhere to the Balkans and it was assumed soon by the local schools of architecture. In addition, two novel variants were invented on the basis of this model: the semi-composite type and the so-called Athonite type. In the latter variant lateral conches, choroi, were added for liturgical reasons. Instead, the origin of the domed ambulatory church was partly provincial. One result of this study is that the origin of the Middle Byzantine domed octagonal types was traced to Constantinople. This is attested on the basis of the archaeological evidence. Also some other architectural elements that have not been preserved in the destroyed capital have survived at the provincial level: the domed hexagonal type, the multi-domed superstructure, the pseudo-octagon and the narthex known as the lite. The Constantinopolitan architecture during the period in question was based on the Early Christian and Late Antique forms, practices and innovations and this also emerges at the provincial level.

Vanhoillislestadiolaisuuden modernisaatioprosessi : näkökulmia yhteiskunnan muutokseen ja yksilöllisyyden käsittelyyn Alajärven vanhoillislestadiolaisuuden kautta

Tutkielma käsittelee vanhoillislestadiolaisen herätysliikkeen suhteutumista yhteiskunnan modernisaatioprosessiin nälkävuosista 2000-luvulle. Aihepiiriä tarkastellaan lähinnä Etelä-pohjanmaan itäosissa Järviseudulla sijaitsevan Alajärven kunnan alueesta käsin. Alajärven puitteissa käsitellään myös lestadiolaisuuden laajempaa kontekstia sekä sen suhteutumista Suomen historiaan ja yhteiskunnan rakenteisiin ja niiden muutoksiin. Yksilön, joukkoliikkeen ja yhteiskunnan suhteita ja merkityksiä avataan tutkielmassa psykohistoriallisten teorioiden kautta. Historiallista muutosta jäsennetään puolestaan modernisaation määrittelyillä. Tutkielman lähdemateriaali perustuu arkistoaineistoon, jossa keskeisessä osassa ovat Alajärven seurakunnan arkisto, sekä Alajärven rauhanyhdistyksen arkisto. Myös herätysliikkeen lehtiä ja muistitietoa käytetään lähdemateriaalina. Lestadiolaisuus saapui Alajärvelle suurten nälkävuosien jälkeen 1870-luvulla. Liikkeen saapumisvaihe voidaan käsittää osana laajempaa yhteiskunnallista muutosta, jossa yksilön kasvava vastuu esimerkiksi rahatalouden muodossa muutti yksilön asemaa ja minuuden rakentumisen ehtoja. Herätysliikkeen ensimmäiset saarnamiehet näyttäytyvät lähteissä murrosprosessin eläjiksi. Lestadiolaisten saarnamiesten nimiä löytyy varsin paljon esimerkiksi kirkkokurinalaisten luettelosta, erilaisista siveellisyysrikkomuksista syytettynä. Lestadiolaisuuden leviäminen liittyy läheisesti myös siirtolaisuuteen. Lestadiolaisuuteen liittyy varhaisvaiheista lähtien niin sanotut liikutukset, jotka voidaan tulkita minäintegraation katoamiseksi ja tiedostamattomien hahmojen nousemiseksi hallitsemaan käyttäytymistä uskonnollisen, olemassaolon ahdistusta symboloivan, puheen seurauksena. Uuden vuosisadan alkupuoliskolla lestadiolaisuus loi asemansa seudun suurimpana hengellisenä liikkeenä ja ylipäätään suurimpana joukkoliikkeenä. Joukkoliikkeellä oli minuuden ja maailman suhteita jäsentävä rooli, ja siihen sulautuminen koettiin usein paluuna turvallisen seurakuntaäidin helmaan. Metaforat voidaan tulkita psykohistoriallisesti paluuna varhaislapsuuden menetettyyn tai saavuttamattomaan asetelmaan. Vanhoillislestadiolaisuus paalutti vuosisadan alkupuoliskolla arvomaailmansa voimakkaasti valkoisen Suomen arvomaailmaan ja ihanteisiin. Toisen maailmansodan jälkeinen yhteiskuntarakenteen nopea muutos maatalousvaltaisesta kunnasta palvelu- ja teollisuusvetoiseksi yhteiskunnaksi, sekä yleinen muuttoliike maalta kohti suurempia keskuksia aiheuttivat suomalaisessa yhteiskunnassa laajan kulttuuri- arvo ja elämäntapamurroksen. Tämä murros näkyy vanhoillislestadiolaisessa herätysliikkeessä kriisitilana, jonka alkusysäys oli liikkeen sivistysporvariston erkaantuminen herätysliikkeestä etenkin suuremmissa kaupungeissa 1960-luvun alussa. Alajärvellä varsinaista hajaantumista ei tapahtunut, mutta yhteiskunnan muuttuminen heijastui voimakkaasti vanhoillislestadiolaiseen kulttuuriin ja vanhoillislestadiolaisuus kääntyi voimakkaasti sisäänpäin modernisaation elementtien levitessä laajemmin liikkeen agraarisille ydinalueille 1960- ja 1970-luvuilla. Tästä kumpuaa liikkeessä voimakas kuohunta, jossa uskonnollinen todellisuus ja pahuuden lohkominen "maailmaan" nousevat keskeiseen asemaan. Henkilöitä, jotka eivät jakaneet ryhmän yhteisiä ihanteita ja kokemuksia pyrittiin saamaan kuriin niin sanotuissa hoitokokouksissa. Yksimielisyys ja "yhteinen rakkaus" suhteessa kollektiiviin on keskeinen piirre vanhoillislestadiolaisen liikkeen itsemäärittelyissä 1970-luvulla. Alajärven suurimman hengellisen liikkeen jäsenmäärä kääntyy laskuun 2000-luvun alussa. Kasvun pysähtyminen selittyy pitkälti yleisellä muuttoliikkeellä jonka myötä vanhoillislestadiolaisuuden painopiste on siirtynyt kohti Etelä-Suomea ja suurien kaupunkien ympäristöön. Postmoderni kulttuuri on asettanut vanhoillislestadiolaisen herätysliikkeen uudenlaiseen asemaan. Yksilön vapauden ja individualismin korostuksissa traditionaalinen liikkeen sisällä on heränneet kysymykset etenkin yhteisön roolista yksilön suhteellisen toimintavapauden määrittelijänä. Vanhoillislestadiolainen joukkoliike kantaa vielä 2000-luvullakin merkityssisältöjä, joissa yksilö ikään kuin uhrautuu yhteisön hyväksi ja kannattelee kollektiivisia rakenteita.

The Role Of Fumarase (FH) In Tumorigenesis

In this study, a predisposing gene for a recently characterized cancer syndrome, hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell cancer (HLRCC), was identified and the role of the gene was investigated in other familial cancers and in nonsyndromic tumorigenesis. HLRCC is a dominantly inherited disorder predisposing predominantly to uterine and skin leiomyomas, and also to renal cell cancer and uterine leiomyosarcoma. The disease gene was recently localized in Finnish families to 1q42-q43 by a genome-wide linkage search. Independently in the UK, a clinically similar condition, multiple cutaneous and uterine leiomyomata (MCUL), was linked to the same chromosomal region, strongly suggesting that HLRCC and MCUL are actually a single syndrome. Linkage results were confirmed by detecting loss of heterozygosity (LOH) at the disease locus in most of the patients' tumors, suggesting that this predisposing gene acts as a tumor suppressor. Through detailed investigation by genotyping of microsatellite markers and haplotype construction in Finnish and UK HLRCC/MCUL families we were able to narrow the disease locus down to 1.6 Mb. Extensive mutation screening of known and predicted transcripts in the target region resulted in identification of the HLRCC predisposing gene, fumarase (fumarate hydratase, FH). FH is a key enzyme in energy metabolism, catalyzing fumarate to malate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCAC) in mitochondria. Germline alterations in FH segregating with the disease were detected in 25 of 42 HLRCC/MCUL families including whole-gene deletions, truncating small deletions/insertions and nonsense mutations, as well as substitutions or deletions of highly conserved amino acids. Biallelic inactivation was detected in almost all studied tumors of HLRCC patients. Furthermore, FH enzyme activity was reduced in the patients' normal tissues and was completely or virtually absent from tumors. Based on these findings, we extensively demonstrated that mutations in FH underlie the HLRCC/MCUL syndrome. In our studies of other familial cancers, evidence for involvement of FH defects was not found in familial prostate and breast cancers. To investigate the role of FH in sporadic tumorigenesis, we analyzed 652 lesions, including a series of 353 nonsyndromic counterparts of tumor types associated with HLRCC. Mutations in nonsyndromic tumors were rare and appeared to be limited to tumor types observed in the hereditary form of the disease. Biallelic inactivation of FH was detected in a uterine leiomyosarcoma, a cutaneous leiomyoma, a soft-tissue sarcoma, and in two uterine leiomyomas. In the uterine leiomyosarcoma and the cutaneous lesion FH mutations originated from the germline whereas the soft-tissue sarcoma harbored purely somatic changes. In uterine leiomyomas somatic mutations were detected in the two out of five tumors with LOH at the FH locus. Our findings demonstrate that FH inactivation is also involved in nonhereditary tumor development, and further support the hypothesis that FH acts as a tumor suppressor. The role of FH in predisposition to malignancies, renal cell carcinoma and leiomyosarcoma is important in the diagnosis and prevention of cancer among HLRCC patients. This study is of general clinical interest, because prior to our findings, little was known about the molecular genetics of uterine leiomyomas, the most common tumors of women.

Postglacial climate changes and vegetation responses in northern Europe

Postglacial climate changes and vegetation responses were studied using a combination of biological and physical indicators preserved in lake sediments. Low-frequency trends, high-frequency events and rapid shifts in temperature and moisture balance were probed using pollen-based quantitative temperature reconstructions and oxygen-isotopes from authigenic carbonate and aquatic cellulose, respectively. Pollen and plant macrofossils were employed to shed light on the presence and response rates of plant populations in response to climate changes, particularly focusing on common boreal and temperate tree species. Additional geochemical and isotopic tracers facilitated the interpretation of pollen- and oxygen-isotope data. The results show that the common boreal trees were present in the Baltic region (~55°N) during the Lateglacial, which contrasts with the traditional view of species refuge locations in the south-European peninsulas during the glacial/interglacial cycles. The findings of this work are in agreement with recent paleoecological and genetic evidence suggesting that scattered populations of tree species persisted at higher latitudes, and that these taxa were likely limited to boreal trees. Moreover, the results demonstrate that stepwise changes in plant communities took place in concert with major climate fluctuations of the glacial/interglacial transition. Postglacial climate trends in northern Europe were characterized by rise, maxima and fall in temperatures and related changes in moisture balance. Following the deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere and the early Holocene reorganization of the ice-ocean-atmosphere system, the long-term temperature trends followed gradually decreasing summer insolation. The early Holocene (~11,700-8000 cal yr BP) was overall cool, moist and oceanic, although the earliest Holocene effective humidity may have been low particularly in the eastern part of northern Europe. The gradual warming trend was interrupted by a cold event ~8200 cal yr BP. The maximum temperatures, ~1.5-3.0°C above modern values, were attained ~8000-4000 cal yr BP. This mid-Holocene peak warmth was coupled with low lake levels, low effective humidity and summertime drought. The late Holocene (~4000 cal yr BP-present) was characterized by gradually decreasing temperatures, higher lake levels and higher effective humidity. Moreover, the gradual trends of the late Holocene were probably superimposed by higher-frequency variability. The spatial variability of the Holocene temperature and moisture balance patterns were tentatively attributed to the differing heat capacities of continents and oceans, changes in atmospheric circulation modes and position of sites and subregions with respect to large water bodies and topographic barriers. The combination of physical and biological proxy archives is a pivotal aspect of this work, because non-climatic factors, such as postglacial migration, disturbances and competitive interactions, can influence reshuffling of vegetation and hence, pollen-based climate reconstructions. The oxygen-isotope records and other physical proxies presented in this work manifest that postglacial climate changes were the main driver of the establishment and expansion of temperate and boreal tree populations, and hence, large-scale and long-term vegetation patterns were in dynamic equilibrium with climate. A notable exception to this pattern may be the postglacial invasion of Norway spruce and the related suppression of mid-Holocene temperate forest. This salient step in north-European vegetation history, the development of the modern boreal ecosystem, cannot be unambiguously explained by current evidence of postglacial climate changes. The results of this work highlight that plant populations, including long-lived trees, may be able to respond strikingly rapidly to changes in climate. Moreover, interannual and seasonal variation and extreme events can exert an important influence on vegetation reshuffling. Importantly, the studies imply that the presence of diffuse refuge populations or local stands among the prevailing vegetation may have provided the means for extraordinarily rapid vegetation responses. Hence, if scattered populations are not provided and tree populations are to migrate long distances, their capacity to keep up with predicted rates of future climate change may be lower than previously thought.

Gene flow from transgenic plant populations: models and applications for risk assessment

The future use of genetically modified (GM) plants in food, feed and biomass production requires a careful consideration of possible risks related to the unintended spread of trangenes into new habitats. This may occur via introgression of the transgene to conventional genotypes, due to cross-pollination, and via the invasion of GM plants to new habitats. Assessment of possible environmental impacts of GM plants requires estimation of the level of gene flow from a GM population. Furthermore, management measures for reducing gene flow from GM populations are needed in order to prevent possible unwanted effects of transgenes on ecosystems. This work develops modeling tools for estimating gene flow from GM plant populations in boreal environments and for investigating the mechanisms of the gene flow process. To describe spatial dimensions of the gene flow, dispersal models are developed for the local and regional scale spread of pollen grains and seeds, with special emphasis on wind dispersal. This study provides tools for describing cross-pollination between GM and conventional populations and for estimating the levels of transgenic contamination of the conventional crops. For perennial populations, a modeling framework describing the dynamics of plants and genotypes is developed, in order to estimate the gene flow process over a sequence of years. The dispersal of airborne pollen and seeds cannot be easily controlled, and small amounts of these particles are likely to disperse over long distances. Wind dispersal processes are highly stochastic due to variation in atmospheric conditions, so that there may be considerable variation between individual dispersal patterns. This, in turn, is reflected to the large amount of variation in annual levels of cross-pollination between GM and conventional populations. Even though land-use practices have effects on the average levels of cross-pollination between GM and conventional fields, the level of transgenic contamination of a conventional crop remains highly stochastic. The demographic effects of a transgene have impacts on the establishment of trangenic plants amongst conventional genotypes of the same species. If the transgene gives a plant a considerable fitness advantage in comparison to conventional genotypes, the spread of transgenes to conventional population can be strongly increased. In such cases, dominance of the transgene considerably increases gene flow from GM to conventional populations, due to the enhanced fitness of heterozygous hybrids. The fitness of GM plants in conventional populations can be reduced by linking the selectively favoured primary transgene to a disfavoured mitigation transgene. Recombination between these transgenes is a major risk related to this technique, especially because it tends to take place amongst the conventional genotypes and thus promotes the establishment of invasive transgenic plants in conventional populations.

Causes and consequences of inbreeding in the ant Formica exsecta

Human actions cause destruction and fragmentation of natural habitats, predisposing populations to loss of genetic diversity and inbreeding, which may further decrease their fitness and survival. Understanding these processes is a main concern in conservation genetics. Yet data from natural populations is scarce, particularly on invertebrates, owing to difficulties in measuring both fitness and inbreeding in the wild. Ants are social insects, and a prime example of an ecologically important group for which the effects of inbreeding remain largely unstudied. Social insects serve key roles in all terrestrial ecosystems, and the division of labor between the females in the colonies queens reproduce, workers tend to the developing brood probably is central to their ecological success. Sociality also has important implications for the effects of inbreeding. Despite their relative abundance, the effective population sizes of social insects tend to be small, owing to the low numbers of reproductive individuals relative to the numbers of sterile workers. This may subject social insects to loss of genetic diversity and subsequent inbreeding depression. Moreover, both the workers and queens can be inbred, with different and possibly multiplicative consequences. The aim of this study was to investigate causes and consequences of inbreeding in a natural population of ants. I used a combination of long-term field and genetic data from colonies of the narrow-headed ant Formica exsecta to examine dispersal, mating behavior and the occurrence of inbreeding, and its consequences on individual and colony traits. Mating in this species takes place in nuptial flights that have been assumed to be population-wide and panmictic. My results, however, show that dispersal is local, with queens establishing new colonies as close as 60 meters from their natal colony. Even though actual sib-mating was rare, individuals from different but related colonies pair, which causes the population to be inbred. Furthermore, multiple mates of queens were related to each other, which also indicates localized mating flights. Hence, known mechanisms of inbreeding avoidance, dispersal and multiple mating, were not effective in this population, as neither reduced inbreeding level of the future colony. Inbreeding had negative consequences both at the individual and colony level. A queen that has mated with a related male produces inbred workers, which impairs the colony s reproductive success. The inbred colonies were less productive and, specifically, produced fewer new queens, possibly owing to effects of inbreeding on the caste determination of female larvae. A striking finding was that males raised in colonies with inbred workers were smaller, which reflects an effect of the social environment as males, being haploid, cannot be inbred themselves. The queens produced in the inbred colonies, in contrast, were not smaller, but their immune response was up-regulated. Inbreeding had no effect on queen dispersal, but inbred queens had a lower probability of successfully founding a new colony. Ultimately, queens that survived through the colony founding phase had a shorter lifespan. This supports the idea that inbreeding imposes a genetic stress, leading to inbreeding depression on both the queen and the colony level. My results show that inbreeding can have profound consequences on insects in the wild, and that in social species the effects of inbreeding may be multiplicative and mediated through the diversity of the social environment, as well as the genetic makeup of the individuals themselves. This emphasizes the need to take into account all levels of organization when assessing the effects of genetic diversity in social animals.

Ecological impacts of Phlebiopsis gigantea biocontrol treatment against Heterobasidion spp. as revealed by fungal community profiling and population analyses

Wood decay fungi belonging to the species complex Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato are among the most common and economically important species causing root rot and stem decay in conifers of the northern temperate regions. New infections by these pathogens can be suppressed by tree stump treatments using chemical or biological control agents. In Finland, the corticiaceous fungus Phlebiopsis gigantea has been formulated into a commercial biocontrol agent called Rotstop (Verdera Ltd.). This thesis addresses the ecological impacts of Rotstop biocontrol treatment on the mycoflora of conifer stumps. Locally, fungal communities within Rotstop-treated and untreated stumps were analyzed using a novel method based on DGGE profiling of small subunit ribosomal DNA fragments amplified directly from wood samples. Population analyses for P. gigantea and H. annosum s.l. were conducted to evaluate possible risks associated with local and/or global distribution of the Rotstop strain. Based on molecular community profiling by DGGE, we detected a few individual wood-inhabiting fungal species (OTUs) that seemed to have suffered or benefited from the Rotstop biocontrol treatment. The DGGE analyses also revealed fungal diversity not retrieved by cultivation and some fungal sequence types untypical for decomposing conifer wood. However, statistical analysis of DGGE community profiles obtained from Rotstop-treated and untreated conifer stumps revealed that the Rotstop treatment had not caused a statistically significant reduction in the species diversity of wood-inhabiting fungi within our experimental forest plots. Locally, ISSR genotyping of cultured P. gigantea strains showed that the Rotstop biocontrol strain was capable of surviving up to six years within treated Norway spruce stumps, while in Scots pine stumps it was sooner replaced by successor fungal species. In addition, the spread of resident P. gigantea strains into Rotstop-treated forest stands seemed effective in preventing the formation of genetically monomorphic populations in the short run. On a global scale, we detected a considerable level of genetic differentiation between the interfertile European and North American populations of P. gigantea. These results strongly suggest that local biocontrol strains should be used in order to prevent global spread of P. gigantea and hybrid formation between geographically isolated populations. The population analysis for H. annosum s.l. revealed a collection of Chinese fungal strains that showed a high degree of laboratory fertility with three different allopatric H. annosum s.l. taxa. However, based on the molecular markers, the Chinese strains could be clearly affiliated with the H. parviporum taxonomical cluster, which thus appears to have a continuous distribution range from Europe through southern Siberia to northern China. Keywords: Rotstop, wood decay, DGGE, ISSR fingerprinting, ribosomal DNA

Quorum sensing in the plant pathogen Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora

Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora (Ecc) is a Gram-negative enterobacterium that causes soft-rot in potato and other crops. The main virulence determinants, the extracellular plant cell wall -degrading enzymes (PCWDEs), lead to plant tissue maceration. In order to establish a successful infection the production of PCWDEs are controlled by a complex regulatory network, including both specific and global activators and repressors. One of the most important virulence regulation systems in Ecc is mediated by quorum sensing (QS), which is a population density -dependent cell-to-cell communication mechanism used by many Gram-negative bacteria. In these bacteria N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHSL), act as diffusible signaling molecules enabling communication between bacterial cells. The AHSLs are structurally diverse and differ in their acyl chain length. This gives the bacteria signaling specificity and enables the recognition and communication within its own species. In order to detect and respond to the AHSLs the bacteria use QS regulators, LuxR-type proteins. The aim of this study was to get a deeper understanding of the Ecc QS system. In the first part of the study we showed that even different strains of Ecc use different dialects and of physiological concentrations, only the cognate AHSL with the correct acyl chain is recognized as a signal that can switch on virulence genes. The molecular basis of the substrate specificity of the AHSL synthase ExpI was investigated in order to recognize the acyl chain length specificity determinants of distinct AHSL synthases. Several critical residues that define the size of the substrate-binding pocket were identified. We demonstrated that in the ExpISCC1 mutations M127T and F69L are sufficient to change the N-3-oxohexanoyl-L-homoserine lactone producing ExpISCC1 to an N-3-oxooctanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (3-oxo-C8-HSL) producing enzyme. In the second study the means of sensing specificity and response to the AHSL signaling molecule were investigated. We demonstrated that the AHSL receptor ExpR1 of Ecc strain SCC3193 has strict specificity for the cognate AHSL 3-oxo-C8-HSL. In addition we identified a second AHSL receptor ExpR2 with a novel property to sense AHSLs with different acyl chain lengths. In the absence of AHSLs ExpR1 and ExpR2 were found to act synergistically to repress the virulence gene expression. This repression was shown to be released by addition of AHSLs and appears to be largely mediated by the global negative regulator RsmA. In the third study random transposon mutagenesis was used to widen the knowledge of the Ecc QS regulon. Two new QS-controlled target genes, encoding a DNA-binding regulator Hor and a plant ferredoxin-like protein FerE, were identified. The QS control of the identified genes was executed by the QS regulators ExpR1 and ExpR2 and as expression of PCWDE genes mediated by the RsmA repressor. Hor was shown to contribute to bacterial virulence at least partly through its control of PCWDE production, while FerE was shown to contribute to oxidative stress tolerance and in planta fitness of the bacteria. In addition our results suggest that QS is central to the control of oxidative stress tolerance in Ecc. In conclusion, these results indicate that Ecc strain SCC3193 is able to react and respond both to the cognate AHSL signal and the signals produced by other bacterial species, in order to control a wide variety of functions in the plant pathogen Ecc.

Microbe-induced activation of inflammatory cytokine response in human cells

Human body is in continuous contact with microbes. Although many microbes are harmless or beneficial for humans, pathogenic microbes possess a threat to wellbeing. Antimicrobial protection is provided by the immune system, which can be functionally divided into two parts, namely innate and adaptive immunity. The key players of the innate immunity are phagocytic white blood cells such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), which constantly monitor the blood and peripheral tissues. These cells are armed for rapid activation upon microbial contact since they express a variety of microbe-recognizing receptors. Macrophages and DCs also act as antigen presenting cells (APCs) and play an important role in the development of adaptive immunity. The development of adaptive immunity requires intimate cooperation between APCs and T lymphocytes and results in microbe-specific immune responses. Moreover, adaptive immunity generates immunological memory, which rapidly and efficiently protects the host from reinfection. Properly functioning immune system requires efficient communication between cells. Cytokines are proteins, which mediate intercellular communication together with direct cell-cell contacts. Immune cells produce inflammatory cytokines rapidly following microbial contact. Inflammatory cytokines modulate the development of local immune response by binding to cell surface receptors, which results in the activation of intracellular signalling and modulates target cell gene expression. One class of inflammatory cytokines chemokines has a major role in regulating cellular traffic. Locally produced inflammatory chemokines guide the recruitment of effector cells to the site of inflammation during microbial infection. In this study two key questions were addressed. First, the ability of pathogenic and non-pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria to activate inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production in different human APCs was compared. In these studies macrophages and DCs were stimulated with pathogenic Steptococcus pyogenes or non-pathogenic Lactobacillus rhamnosus. The second aim of this thesis work was to analyze the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the regulation of microbe-induced chemokine production. In these studies bacteria-stimulated macrophages and influenza A virus-infected lung epithelial cells were used as model systems. The results of this study show that although macrophages and DCs share several common antimicrobial functions, these cells have significantly distinct responses against pathogenic and non-pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria. Macrophages were activated in a nearly similar fashion by pathogenic S. pyogenes and non-pathogenic L. rhamnosus. Both bacteria induced the production of similar core set of inflammatory chemokines consisting of several CC-class chemokines and CXCL8. These chemokines attract monocytes, neutrophils, dendritic cells and T cells. Thus, the results suggest that bacteria-activated macrophages efficiently recruit other effector cells to the site of inflammation. Moreover, macrophages seem to be activated by all bacteria irrespective of their pathogenicity. DCs, in contrast, were efficiently activated only by pathogenic S. pyogenes, which induced DC maturation and production of several inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. In contrast, L. rhamnosus-stimulated DCs matured only partially and, most importantly, these cells did not produce inflammatory cytokines or chemokines. L. rhamnosus-stimulated DCs had a phenotype of "semi-mature" DCs and this type of DCs have been suggested to enhance tolerogenic adaptive immune responses. Since DCs have an essential role in the development of adaptive immune response the results suggest that, in contrast to macrophages, DCs may be able to discriminate between pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria and thus mount appropriate inflammatory or tolerogenic adaptive immune response depending on the microbe in question. The results of this study also show that pro-inflammatory cytokines can contribute to microbe-induced chemokine production at multiple levels. S. pyogenes-induced type I interferon (IFN) was found to enhance the production of certain inflammatory chemokines in macrophages during bacterial stimulation. Thus, bacteria-induced chemokine production is regulated by direct (microbe-induced) and indirect (pro-inflammatory cytokine-induced) mechanisms during inflammation. In epithelial cells IFN- and tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) were found to enhance the expression of PRRs and components of cellular signal transduction machinery. Pre-treatment of epithelial cells with these cytokines prior to virus infection resulted in markedly enhanced chemokine response compared to untreated cells. In conclusion, the results obtained from this study show that pro-inflammatory cytokines can enhance microbe-induced chemokine production during microbial infection by providing a positive feedback loop. In addition, pro-inflammatory cytokines can render normally low-responding cells to high chemokine producers via enhancement of microbial detection and signal transduction.

Diffusive and ship-mediated spread of dinoflagellates in the Baltic Sea with Prorocentrum minimum as a special case

In this thesis the role played by expansive and introduced species in the phytoplankton ecology of the Baltic Sea was investigated. The aims were threefold. First, the studies investigated the resting stages of dinoflagellates, which were transported into the Baltic Sea via shipping and were able to germinate under the ambient, nutrient-rich, brackish water conditions. The studies also estimated which factors favoured the occurrence and spread of P. minimum in the Baltic Sea and discussed the identification of this morphologically variable species. In addition, the classification of phytoplankton species recently observed in the Baltic Sea was discussed. Incubation of sediments from four Finnish ports and 10 ships ballast tanks revealed that the sediments act as sources of living dinoflagellates and other phytoplankton. Dinoflagellates germinated from all ports detected and from 90% of ballast tanks. The concentrations of cells germinating from ballast tank sediments were mostly low compared with the acceptable cell concentrations set by the International Maritime Organization s (IMO s) International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments. However, the IMO allows such high concentrations of small cells in the discharged ballast water that the total number of cells in large ballast water tanks can be very high. Prorocentrum minimum occurred in the Baltic Sea annually but with no obvious trend in the 10-year timespan from 1993 to 2002. The species occurred under wide ranges of temperatures and salinities and the abundance of the species was positively related especially to the presence of organic nitrogen and phosphorus. This indicated that the species was favoured by increased organic nutrient loading and runoff from land and rivers. The cell shape of P. minimum varied from triangular to oval-round, but morphological fine details indicated that only one morphospecies was present. P. minimum also is, according to present knowledge, the only potentially harmful phytoplankton species that has recently expanded widely into new areas of the Baltic Sea.

Population structure and evolution in the ant Plagiolepis pygmaea and its two social parasites Plagiolepis xene and Plagiolepis grassei

Social behaviour affects dispersal of animals and is an important modifier of genetic population structures. The female sex is often philopatric, which maintains coancestry within the breeding groups and promotes cooperative behaviours. This enables also inclusive fitness returns from altruism and explains why some individuals sacrifice personal reproduction for the good of others in social insects such as ants. However, reduced dispersal and population substructuring at the level of colonies may also entail inbreeding, loss of genetic diversity, and vulnerability. In addition, the most vulnerable ants are species that are evolved to parasitize colonies of other ants, and which compromise between abilities to disperse and the efficiency to parasitize the host. On the other hand, certain social organisations of ant colonies may facilitate a species to disperse outside its natural range and become a pest. Altogether, knowledge on genetic structuring of ant populations, as well as the evolution of their life histories can contribute to conservation biology and population management. The aim of this thesis was to investigate population structures and phylogenetic evolution of the ant Plagiolepis pygmaea and its two obligatory, workerless social parasites (inquilines) P. xene and P. grassei with genetic markers and DNA sequence data. The results support the general assumption that populations of inquiline parasites are highly fragmented and genetically vulnerable. Comparison of the two parasites suggests that differences in their relative abundance may follow from their interaction with the host, i.e. how well the species is adapted to reproduce in the host colonies. The results also indicate that the most recent free living ancestor to these two parasite species is their common host. This is considered to provide evidence for the controversial issue of sympatric speciation. Further, given that the level of adaptations to parasitic life history depends on the evolutionary time since the free-living ancestor, the results establish a link between species rarity and its evolutionary age. The populations of the host species P. pygmaea displayed significantly reduced dispersal both among the females (queens) and males, and high levels of inbreeding which may enhance worker altruism. In addition, the queens were found to mate with multiple males. Given the high relatedness between the queens and their mates, this occurs probably for non-genetic reasons, e.g. without benefits associated in genetically more diverse offspring. The results hence caution that the contribution of non-genetic factors to the prevailing mating patterns and genetic population structures should not be underestimated.