The defence of joint illegal activity must be looked at in context

In Miller v Miller (2011) 85 ALJR 480; [2011] HCA 9 the High Court examined the complex issue of joint illegal activity. The issue before the court was whether a plaintiff who had engaged in an illegal activity with the defendant may claim damages in negligence. In its decision the court analysed the cases of Henwood v Municipal Tramways Trust (SA) (1938) 60 CLR 438, Smith v Jenkins (1970) 119 CLR 397, Jackson v Harrison (1978) 138 CLR 438 and Gala v Preston (1991) 172 CLR 243.

The conundrum of phoenix activity: Is further reform necessary?

Phoenix activity presents a conundrum for the law and its regulators. While there is economic cost associated with all phoenix activity, the underlying behaviour is not always illegal. A transaction with indicators of phoenix activity may be an entirely innocent and well-intentioned display of entrepreneurial spirit, albeit one that has ended in failure. Restructuring post business failure is not illegal per se. Recent reforms targeting phoenix activity fail to grapple with the vast range of behaviour that can be described as phoenix activity since they do not differentiate between legal and illegal activity. This article explores the importance of the distinction between legal and illegal phoenix activity, the extent to which the existing law captures a range of behaviour that can be described as illegal phoenix activity and the response of key regulators and governmental bodies to the absence of single law that attempts to define illegal phoenix activity.

Essays on Illegal Activities, Institutions and Economic Growth

In public economics, two extremist views on the functions of a government compete: one emphasizes government working for the public interest to provide value for the citizens, while another regards government mainly as a workhorse for private interests. Moreover, as the sole legitimate authority, the government has the right to define the rules and laws as well as to enforce them. With respect to regulation, two extremes arise: from too little regulation to too much of it. If the government does not function or ceases to exist, the state falls into anarchy or chaos (Somalia). If it regulates too much, it will completely suffocate private activities, which might be considered extralegal (the former Soviet Union). In this thesis I scrutinize the government s interventionist policies and evaluate the question of how to best promote economic well-being. The first two essays assume that the government s policies promote illegal activity. The first paper evaluates the interaction between the government and the mafia, and pays attention to the law enforcement of underground production. We show that the revenue-maximizing government will always monitor the shadow economy, as monitoring contributes to the government s revenue. In general, both legal and illegal firms are hurt by the entry of the mafia. It is, however, plausible that legal firms might benefit by the entry of the mafia if it competes with the government. The second paper tackles the issue of the measurement of the size of the shadow economy. To formulate policies it is essential to know what drives illegal economic activity; is it the tax burden, excess regulation, corruption or a weak legal environment? In this paper we propose an additional explanation for tax evasion and shadow production, namely cultural factors as manifested by religion as determinants of tax morality. According to our findings, Catholic and Protestant countries do not differ in their tax morale. The third paper contributes to the literature discussing the role of the government in promoting economic and productivity growth. Our main result is that, given the complex relationship between economic growth and economic freedom, marketization has not necessarily been beneficial in terms of growth. The last paper builds on traditional growth literature and revisits the debate on convergence clubs arising from demographic transition. We provide new evidence against the idea that countries within a club would converge over time. Instead, we propose that since the demographic transition is a dynamic process, one can expect countries to enter the last regime of stable, modern growth in stages.

Valoa itään? : Kansanlähetys ja Neuvostoliitto 1967-1973

Light to the East? The Finnish Lutheran Mission and the Soviet Union 1967 1973 The Cold War affected the lives of Christian churches, especially in Europe. Besides the official ecumenical relations between east and west, there existed unofficial activity from west to east, such as smuggling Bibles and distributing information about the severe condition of human rights in the USSR. This study examines this kind of unofficial activity originating in Finland. It especially concentrates on the missionary work to the Soviet Union done by the Finnish Lutheran Mission (FLM, Suomen Evankelisluterilainen Kansanlähetys) founded in 1967. The work for Eastern Europe was organised through the Department for the Slavic Missions. FLM was founded within the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, but it was not connected to the church on an organisational level. In addition to the strong emphasis on the Lutheran confession, FLM presented evangelical theology. The fundamental work of the Department for the Slavic Missions was to organise the smuggling of Bibles and other Christian literature to the Soviet Union and other countries behind the iron curtain. They also financed several Christian radio programmes produced and aired mainly by the international Trans World Radio. The Department diversified its activity to humanitarian help by distributing material help such as clothes and shoes to the unregistered evangelical and baptist groups, which were called the underground churches . In Finland the Department focused on information services. It published its own magazine, Valoa idässä (Light in the East), 5 to 6 times per year. Through the magazine and by distributing samizdat material received from the unregistered Christian groups, it discussed and reported the violations of human rights in the Soviet Union, especially when the unregistered Christian groups were considered the victims. The resistance against the Soviet Union was not as much political but religious: the staff of the Department were religious and revivalist young people who thought, for instance, that communism was in some way an apocalyptic world power revealed in the Bible. Smuggling Bibles was discussed widely in the Finnish media and even in parliament and the Finnish Security Police (SUPO, Suojelupoliisi) and in the Lutheran Church. From the church s point of view, this kind of missionary work was understandable but bothersome. Through their ecumenical connections, the bishops knew the critical situation of churches behind the iron curtain very well, but wanted to act diplomatically and cautiously to prevent causing harm to ecumenical or political relations. The leftist media and members of parliament especially accused the work of the Department of being illegal and endangering relations between Finland and the Soviet Union. SUPO did not consider the work of the Department as illegal activity or as a threat to Finnish national security.

Assessing the determinants of public confidence in the police: A case study of a post-conflict community in Northern Ireland

Drawing upon original survey research this article seeks to identify the generative processes that influence perceptions of the police in the context of an inner-city neighbourhood in Northern Ireland that has been affected by increases in crime and disorder in the aftermath of the peace process. Conceptually we draw upon recent research from England and Wales that outlines confidence in the police in terms of instrumental and expressive dimensions. We apply this framework and consider whether it provides a useful template for understanding the post-conflict dynamics of police-community relations in our study area. Contrary to much received wisdom our analysis suggests that instrumental concerns about crime and illegal activity are a more influential predictor of attitudes to the police than expressive concerns with disorder and anti-social behaviour. Consequently our discussion points to the variance in local and national survey data and questions the degree to which the latter can usefully inform our understanding of trends and developments in discrete micro-spaces. Our conclusion outlines the potential policy implications for state policing practice in deprived urban spaces.

Insiders, outsiders, and the role of local enforcement in forest management: an example from Tanzania

In low-income countries, both nearby local villagers, “insiders”, and non-locals, “outsiders”, extract products from protected forests even though their actions are illegal. Forest managers typically combine enforcement and livelihood projects offered to nearby communities to reduce this illegal activity, but with limited budgets cannot deter all extraction. We develop a game theoretic model of a forest manager's decision interacting with the extraction decisions of insiders and outsiders. Our analysis suggests that, depending on the relative ecological damage caused by each group, budget-constrained forest managers may reduce total forest degradation by legalizing “insider” extraction in return for local villagers' involvement in enforcement activities against outsiders.

Protecting Your Search Privacy: A Lesson Plan

Each year search engines like Google, Bing and Yahoo, complete trillions of search queries online. Students are especially dependent on these search tools because of their popularity, convenience and accessibility. However, what students are unaware of, by choice or naiveté is the amount of personal information that is collected during each search session, how that data is used and who is interested in their online behavior profile. Privacy policies are frequently updated in favor of the search companies but are lengthy and often are perused briefly or ignored entirely with little thought about how personal web habits are being exploited for analytics and marketing. As an Information Literacy instructor, and a member of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, I believe in the importance of educating college students and web users in general that they have a right to privacy online. Class discussions on the topic of web privacy have yielded an interesting perspective on internet search usage. Students are unaware of how their online behavior is recorded and have consistently expressed their hesitancy to use tools that disguise or delete their IP address because of the stigma that it may imply they have something to hide or are engaging in illegal activity. Additionally, students fear they will have to surrender the convenience of uber connectivity in their applications to maintain their privacy. The purpose of this lightning presentation is to provide educators with a lesson plan highlighting and simplifying the privacy terms for the three major search engines, Google, Bing and Yahoo. This presentation focuses on what data these search engines collect about users, how that data is used and alternative search solutions, like DuckDuckGo, for increased privacy. Students will directly benefit from this lesson because informed internet users can protect their data, feel safer online and become more effective web searchers.

Crime and punishment with habit formation

Moral concepts affect crime supply. This idea is modelled assuming that illegal activities is habit forming. We introduce habits in a intertemporal general equilibrium framework to illegal activities and compare its outcomes with a model without habit formation. The findings are that habit and crime presents a non linear relationship that hinges upon the level of capital and habit formation. It is possible to show that while the effect of habit on crime is negative for low levels o habit formation it becomes positive as habits goes up. Secondly habit reduces the marginal effect of illegal activities return on crime. Finally, the effect of habit on crime depends positively on the amount of capital. This could explain the relationship between size of cities and illegal activity.

Etnoecologia, pesca e manejo comunitário de quelônios aquáticos na várzea do Baixo rio Amazonas

O presente estudo descreve, registra e compara estratégias de pesca e manejo comunitário de quelônios aquáticos em três comunidades da várzea de Santarém. Avaliou-se também o consumo de quelônios, incluindo preferências, rejeições e tabus alimentares, e uso destes como recursos terapêuticos na medicina popular. As técnicas de pesca de quelônios empregadas foram descritas, compreendendo variações espacial e sazonal de uso e espécies capturadas e seletividade das técnicas fundamentadas nos saberes locais. Analisaram-se ainda o rendimento das pescarias e as relações entre investimento e retorno das mesmas. Os dados foram coletados entre junho de 2007 a julho de 2008. Realizaram-se conversas informais, acompanhamento das atividades pesqueiras e observação participante nas comunidades. Entrevistas semi-estruturadas também foram realizadas adotando-se o método recordatório alimentar, monitoramento do consumo anual de quelônios e recordações das últimas pescarias de quelônios. Os primeiros relatos de manejo de quelônios na Amazônia são datados da época do contato entre populações ameríndias e europeias. Na década de 70 ações do governo brasileiro foram implementadas fundamentadas no gerenciamento centralizado no poder do Estado. Hoje, práticas de comanejo de quelônios ocorrem em vários lugares na Amazônia, como nas comunidades Ilha de São Miguel, Costa do Aritapera e Água Preta. Mesmo pautados na demanda comunitária os manejos dessas três comunidades apresentam perspectivas diferenciadas em virtude do variado grau de experiência com sistemas de manejo comunitário. A Ilha de São Miguel já realiza o manejo de quelônios há cerca de 40 anos com certo grau de sucesso, enquanto na Água Preta o co-manejo vem sendo estabelecido há 22 anos de forma menos rigorosa e na Costa do Aritapera não se obteve êxito em sua recente implementação. De modo geral, a inclusão dos principais usuários dos recursos naturais em seu manejo ainda se constitui uma tarefa de difícil execução. O grande desafio para o manejo de quelônios e outros recursos da fauna cinegética na Amazônia é o reconhecimento legal de seu uso. O consumo de quelônios é uma tradição enraizada na cultura amazônica, entretanto é criminalizado, constrangendo a maior parte da população a assumir seu uso. Por ser considerada atividade ilegal não há estimativas da quantidade de animais explorados, tornando difícil a implantação de formas de manejo comunitário sustentáveis. Percebeu-se na dieta dos ribeirinhos desse estudo a participação de peixe como principal fonte de proteína animal, enquanto o consumo de quelônios registrado foi relativamente pequeno. Constataram-se diferenças quanto às espécies de quelônios consumidas. Em geral, tracajá (Podocnemis unifilis) (carne e ovos) configura-se como quelônio mais consumido nas três comunidades, sendo a pitiu (Podocnemis sextuberculata) (carne e ovos) consumida principalmente na Costa do Aritapera. As tartarugas (Podocnemis expansa) são pouco utilizadas, não houve registros de coleta de seus ovos, sendo sua carne consumida principalmente na Ilha de São Miguel. Tais variações podem estar relacionadas à combinação de fatores ecológicos e ao histórico do manejo presentes em cada comunidade. Não foram observadas diferenças culturais nas comunidades estudadas quanto ao uso de quelônios. Tartaruga é a espécie mais rejeitada, usada principalmente na medicina popular; tracajá e pitiu em geral são os quelônios preferidos, sendo os três considerados reimosos (animais sujeitos a tabus alimentares em algumas circunstâncias, como doenças, menstruação, gravidez e pós-parto). A espécie mais capturada foi o tracajá, seguindo-se a pitiu e em menor proporção a tartaruga. O tracajá é encontrado em vários ambientes, sendo coletado durante o ano todo nas três comunidades; pitius são capturadas principalmente na Costa do Aritapera no período da seca e da vazante, quando estão concentradas durante a migração ao saírem das áreas inundáveis em direção aos rios e às praias de desova, enquanto tartarugas são pescadas nos lagos protegidos da Ilha de São Miguel, na enchente e na cheia. As técnicas de pesca apresentam uso diferenciado em função do nível do rio. Os pescadores reconhecem tais variações sazonais, as quais aliadas a um conjunto de saberes locais são utilizadas na seleção das técnicas de pesca de quelônios. A pesca de quelônios é realizada em geral de modo oportuno, durante as pescarias de peixes. O rendimento das pescarias de quelônio foi maior quando estas não incluíram a captura de peixes e quando realizadas com uso da mão. O rendimento com base na CPUE_N diferiu entre as comunidades estudadas e entre os períodos de pesca, porém não houve diferença significativa no rendimento das pescarias entre esses parâmetros quando a biomassa foi utilizada nos cálculos de CPUE. O pescador, em geral, não está preocupado em maximizar seu rendimento, já que a maior parte das pescarias não se destina a comercialização. O rendimento, desta forma, acaba refletindo mais o acerto de um bom local de pesca do que o esforço de deslocamento empregado na mesma.Quando a mancha era boa os pescadores gastavam pouco tempo, enquanto em manchas menos produtivas gastavam mais tempo. Alguns pontos a serem adotados com vistas à concretização e sucesso do manejo comunitário são sugeridos nesse estudo: (1) definição clara dos direitos de acesso aos recursos e das sanções em caso de infração dos acordos; (2) estabelecimento de programas de capacitação de lideranças comunitárias; (3) criação de um fundo comunitário para desenvolvimento de outras atividades econômicas e investimento na melhoria da qualidade de vida dos moradores e nas próprias ações envolvidas no manejo; (4) reconhecimento e uso do conhecimento ecológico local e do direito de se utilizar o recurso; (5) ampliação regional do modelo comunitário para outras áreas, considerando que algumas espécies realizam grandes migrações; (6) monitoramento das populações exploradas; (7) avaliação periódica da efetivação do manejo e seu papel para os moradores locais; (8) repartição dos benefícios entre os comunitários. No caso específico dos quelônios recomendam-se também a proteção de outros ambientes além das áreas de nidificação e a determinação de um sistema de cotas voltado ao aproveitamento de ovos que seriam perdidos com possibilidade de comercialização para criadores.

Mem Tri: Memory Forensics Triage Tool

This work explores the development of MemTri. A memory forensics triage tool that can assess the likelihood of criminal activity in a memory image, based on evidence data artefacts generated by several applications. Fictitious illegal suspect activity scenarios were performed on virtual machines to generate 60 test memory images for input into MemTri. Four categories of applications (i.e. Internet Browsers, Instant Messengers, FTP Client and Document Processors) are examined for data artefacts located through the use of regular expressions. These identified data artefacts are then analysed using a Bayesian Network, to assess the likelihood that a seized memory image contained evidence of illegal activity. Currently, MemTri is under development and this paper introduces only the basic concept as well as the components that the application is built on. A complete description of MemTri coupled with extensive experimental results is expected to be published in the first semester of 2017.

An Economic Approach to Motor Vehicle Theft

Motor vehicle theft costs dearly to the Australian economy. Conservative estimates have put the annual cost of this form of illegal activity at 654 million during 1996. A number of initiatives aimed at reducing the incidence and cost of car theft have been implemented in recent years, yet statistics indicate that car theft is on the increase. Several authors have proposed an integrated approach to the regulation of markets for stolen property. Understanding property crime as a market is central to identifying approaches to its control. This paper discusses an industry model of crime and develops it on Australian data. Our model is an adaptation of one originally proposed by Vandeale (1978). It considers a production sector that uses inputs from a market of illegal labour to generate a supply of illegal goods that are traded in a product market. These sectors interact with each other and with a criminal justice sector. The model is applied to the analysis of car theft in Queensland.

Organized crime : policing illegal business entrepreneurialism

Organized crime in the twenty-first century is a knowledge war that poses an incalculable global threat to the world economy and harm to society - the economic and social costs are estimated at upwards of L20 billion a year for the UK alone (SOCA 2006/7). Organized Crime: Policing Illegal Business Entrepreneurialism offers a unique approach to the tackling of this area by exploring how it works through the conceptual framework of a business enterprise. Structured in three parts, the book progresses systematically through key areas and concepts integral to dealing effectively with the myriad contemporary forms of organised crime and provides insights on where, how and when to disrupt and dismantle a criminal business activity through current policing practices and policies. From the initial set up of a crime business through to the long term forecasting for growth and profitability, the authors dissect and analyse the different phases of the business enterprise and propose a 'Knowledge-Managed Policing' (KMP) approach to criminal entrepreneurialism. Combining conceptual and practical issues, this is a must-have reference for all police professionals, policing academics and government policy makers who are interested in a Strategy-led, Intelligence supported, Knowledge-Managed approach to policing illegal business entrepreneurialism.

Managing Work, Hedonism and 'the Borderline' Between the Legal and Illegal Markets: Two Case Studies of Recreational Heavy Drug Users

In the context of cultural and/or differential ‘normalisation’ of certain forms of drug use, this article describes two case-studies of heavy recreational drug users. The daily lives of these users blur the line between the legal and the illegal; their drug trading is generally as a consumer and ‘friend of a friend’ small dealer in the low-level market. In the first case, problems with management of employment, time and financial budgeting are described; in the second case, such management is accomplished. Discussion refers to: differences between the two in relation to resources and vulnerability to risks, and to leisure/pleasure cultures of hedonism. The research agenda should pay more attention to users who seek to maintain a legitimate lifestyle but who develop problems managing work and their drug-related leisure. Understanding the consumer demand and dealing activity of such users is important in trying to develop a fuller understanding of drug markets.

Economic theory informing approaches to phoenix activity in small business: A neo-Schumpeterian analysis

The adequacy and efficiency of existing legal and regulatory frameworks dealing with corporate phoenix activity have been repeatedly called into question over the past two decades through various reviews, inquiries, targeted regulatory operations and the implementation of piecemeal legislative reform. Despite these efforts, phoenix activity does not appear to have abated. While there is no law in Australia that declares ‘phoenix activity’ to be illegal, the behaviour that tends to manifest in phoenix activity can be capable of transgressing a vast array of law, including for example, corporate law, tax law, and employment law. This paper explores the notion that the persistence of phoenix activity despite the sheer extent of this law suggests that the law is not acting as powerfully as it might as a deterrent. Economic theories of entrepreneurship and innovation can to some extent explain why this is the case and also offer a sound basis for the evaluation and reconsideration of the existing law. The challenges facing key regulators are significant. Phoenix activity is not limited to particular corporate demographic: it occurs in SMEs, large companies and in corporate groups. The range of behaviour that can amount to phoenix activity is so broad, that not all phoenix activity is illegal. This paper will consider regulatory approaches to these challenges via analysis of approaches to detection and enforcement of the underlying law capturing illegal phoenix activity. Remedying the mischief of phoenix activity is of practical importance. The benefits include continued confidence in our economy, law that inspires best practice among directors, and law that is articulated in a manner such that penalties act as a sufficient deterrent and the regulatory system is able to detect offenders and bring them to account. Any further reforms must accommodate and tolerate legal phoenix activity, at least to some extent. Even then, phoenix activity pushes tolerance of repeated entrepreneurial failure to its absolute limit. The more limited liability is misused and abused, the stronger the argument to place some restrictions on access to limited liability. This paper proposes that such an approach is a legitimate next step for a robust and mature capitalist economy.

Trade secrets: a ten year overview of the illegal import of sea turtle products into the United States

For more than 25 years all sea turtle products have been prohibited from international commerce by the 170-member nations of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Sea turtles continue to be threatened by direct take (including poaching) and illegal trade despite multi-national protection efforts. Although take may contribute significantly to sea turtle decline, illegal take is difficult to measure since there are few quantified records associated with legal fisheries and fewer still for illegal take (poaching). We can, however, quantify one portion of the illegal sea turtle trade by determining how many illegal products were seized at United States ports of entry over a recent 10-year period. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) oversees the import and export of wildlife and wildlife products, ensuring that wildlife trade complies with United States laws and international treaties. Additionally, the USFWS has legal authority to target suspected illegal wildlife activity through undercover and field investigations. In an effort to assess the scale of illegal sea turtle take and trade, we have conducted a 10-year (1994 – 2003) review of the law enforcement database maintained by the USFWS. This database tracks the number and type of wildlife cases, the quantity of seized products, and the penalties assessed against violators. These data are minimum estimates of the sea turtle products passing through the United States borders, as smuggled wildlife is oftentimes not detected.