Intake, live-weight gain and carcass characteristics of beef cattle given diets based on forage maize silage harvested at different stages of maturity

Advancing maturity of forage maize is associated with increases in the proportion of dry matter (DM) and starch, and decreases in the proportions of structural carbohydrates in the ensiled crop. This experiment investigated the effects of three maize silages of 291 (low), 339 (medium) and 393 (high) g DM per kg fresh weight on the performance of 48 Simmental. Holstein-Friesian cattle. Equal numbers of steers (mean start weight = 503 (s.d. 31.3) kg) and heifers (mean start weight = 378 (s.d. 11.2) kg) were offered individually isonitrogenous diets composed of the three silages plus a protein supplement with minerals once daily until slaughter at the target live weight of 575 and 475 kg for steers and heifers, respectively. Intake was reduced on the low diet (P < 0.01) compared with the other two treatments. Dietary starch intake increased by a total of 1 kg/day between low and medium diets but by only 0.2 kg/day between medium and high diets. Unlike starch intake, total neutral-detergent fibre intake showed no significant difference (P > 0.05) between diets. There were no differences in live-weight gain between treatments but differences (P < 0.05) in food conversion efficiency indicated relative gains of 115, 100 and 102 g gain per kg DM intake for diets low, medium and high, respectively. There were no differences between diets in carcass weights, fat score and overall conformation.

Even-sowing pattern strategies for a low-input agricultural system in forage maize

The objective of this study was to verify the effectiveness of new patterns of sowing and to achieve a low-input organic system in two different environments (northern and southern Europe). The study was motivated by the hypothesis that more even sowing patterns (triangular and square) would significantly enhance the growth and yield of forage maize under widely varying conditions, compared with traditional mechanised rectangular seed patterns. An experiment was conducted in Madrid and duplicated in Copenhagen during 2010. A random block design was used with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement based on two seed-sowing patterns: traditional (rectangular) and new (even) and two weed-management conditions (herbicide use and a low-input system). In both weed-management conditions and locations, the production of aerial maize biomass was greater for the new square seed patterns. In addition, the new pattern showed a greater effectiveness in the control of weeds, both at the initial crop stages (36 and 33% fewer weeds m-2 at the 4- and 8-leaf stages, respectively, in the Copenhagen field experiment) and at the final stage. The final weed biomass for the new pattern was 568 kg ha-1 lower for the Copenhagen experiment and 277 kg ha-1 lower in Madrid field experiments. In the light of these results, the new pattern could potentially reduce the use of herbicides. The results of the experiments support the hypothesis formulated at the beginning of this study that even-sowing patterns would be relatively favourable for the growth and yield of the maize crop. In the near future, new machinery could be used to achieve new seed patterns for the optimisation of biomass yield under low-input systems. This approach is effective because it promotes natural crop-weed competition.

Digestion, rumen fermentation and circulating concentrations of insulin, growth hormone and IGF-1 in steers given maize silages harvested at three stages of maturity

Advancing maturity of forage maize is associated with increases in the proportion of dry matter (DM) and starch and decreases in the proportions of structural carbohydrates in the ensiled crop. Three maize silages (286 (low, L), 329 (medium, M) and 379 (high, H) g DM per kg fresh weight) plus a concentrate formulated to give isonitrogenous intakes were offered to Holstein-Friesian steers fitted with a cannula in the dorsal sac of the rumen and a 'T' piece cannula in the proximal duodenum in an experiment with a cross-over design that allowed four collection periods. Nutrient flow to the duodenum was estimated using chromium-EDTA. Steers consumed approximately 0(.)6 kg DM per day less of diet L compared with the other two diets (P=0(.)026), resulting in less DM being digested (P=0(.)005) but digestibility did not differ between diets. Similar results were obtained for organic matter. There were no differences between diets in the intake or digestibility of neutral-detergent fibre. Intake, duodenal flow and faecal output of starch were greater for steers offered diets M and H compared with those given diet L (P < 0(.)05). In all diets rumen digestion contributed to over 90% of total digestion of starch, although rumen digestibility declined significantly with advancing maize maturity (P=0(.)002). Molar proportions of acetic acid were higher in diet H (P < 0(.)05) whilst proportions of propionic acid and n-butyric acid were higher in diets M and L. There were no significant differences between diets in mean rumen pH or ammonia concentrations. Mean circulating concentrations of insulin were higher (P=0(.)009) in cattle given diets L and M compared with diet H. There were no differences between diets in the mean circulating concentration of growth hormone, or the frequency, amplitude and duration of growth hormone pulses, or the mean circulating concentrations of IGF-1. Changes in forage composition that accompany advancing maize maturity affect overall silage digestion and circulating concentrations of insulin.

Using near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) to predict the biological parameters of maize silage

The microbial fermentability, ruminal degradability and digestibility of 48 maize silages were determined using in vitro gas production (GP), in situ degradability and in vitro digestibility procedures. The silages were produced from forage maize harvested throughout the summer of 1998, and represent a wide range of physiological maturities. Large variations among samples were observed for all biological parameters, with the exception of in vitro digestibility and the asymptote of in vitro GP. The potential of near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) to predict the biological parameters measured was determined by regression of the biological data against the respective spectral profile. NIRS demonstrated only a moderate ability (R-2 > 0.60-0.80) to predict in vitro digestibility, modelled kinetics of gas production (excluding the asymptote of gas production) and the modelled ruminally soluble dry matter (DM) fraction. Calibration statistics for remaining biological parameters were unacceptably poor (R-2 = 0.60). (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

玉米、谷子基因转化的研究

本工作用BT基因、PinⅡ基因和bar基因对青饲玉米、谷子进行了基因转化的研究，并且对转基因的受体、转基因的方法、转化后的筛选、检测及植株再生等问题进行了探讨。 玉米胚性细胞系，包括胚性愈伤组织和胚性细胞悬浮系，可作为基因转化的受体，它亦是原生质体培养的关键。玉米的基因型对胚性细胞系的获得有很大的影响。在相同的培养条件下，九个青饲玉米品系都得到了I型愈伤组织，但仅有两个品系(232和235)得到了胚性细胞系(L32和L35)。幼胚的长度及年龄也是影响诱导形成胚性愈伤组织的一个重要因素，最佳胚长是1-1.5mm，最佳胚龄是授粉后10-12天的幼胚。另外，适当提高蔗糖浓度对胚性细胞悬浮系的建立及保持均有好处。 从玉米原生质体培养获得了再生植株．在此基础上用电激法和PEG法将BT基因导入玉米原生体，发现在原生质体培养过程中，同对照相比，第一次细胞分裂及形成愈伤组织的时间往后推移． 诱导玉米I型愈伤组织没有基因型的限制，可以从大多数玉米品系中得到。并且玉米I型愈伤组织具有极强的分化能力．我们将玉米I型愈伤组织作为基因枪法转化的受体，获得了转基因工程植株。目前，尚未见这方面的报道． 基因枪法转化玉米胚性细胞系，得到抗性愈伤组织的效率约为1/40。用直径约3mm的玉米I型愈伤组织块作基因枪法转化受体，转化后经筛选平均每块可得到1-4个抗性愈伤组织系。用PEG和电激法转化玉米原生质体，转化后原生质体再生愈伤组织中，抗性愈伤组织的得率为9.3%和8.9%， 基因枪法适应完整的细胞和组织的转化，可较快得到抗性植株，在玉米基因转化研究中， 为了较快地得到转化植株，用基因枪法较电激法和PEG法更好，在玉米三种基因转化的受体中（原生质体、胚性细胞系和I型愈伤组织），以I型愈伤组织作受体最好，用它作受体可以避免原生质体培养的困难，克服获得胚性细胞系的基因型的限制。 胚性细胞系对抗菌素的耐受性随继代时间增长而增加．I型愈伤组织对抗菌素的耐受性 同愈伤组织块的大小呈正相关。 由于玉米愈伤组织对卡那霉素的本底抗性较高，所以需要用高浓度(800mg/L)的卡那霉 素进行筛选，过高的选择压力对芽的分化有抑制作用．用电激和PEG处理后的原生质体再生的愈伤组织，经卡那霉素筛选出的抗性愈伤组织未能得到再生植株。而对照则得到了再生植株。用PPT和Hyg筛选出的抗性愈伤组织得到了再生植株． 用PCR和Southern杂交对抗性愈伤组织和再生植株进行检测，证明外源基因已整合到 玉米基因组中。得到了携有BT基因、bar基因或PinⅡ基因的愈伤组织或工程植株。 用豫谷一号的幼穗诱导获得了胚性愈伤组织，基因枪转化后，经PPT筛选得到抗性愈伤组织。每个5cm的培养皿内装有谷子胚性愈伤组织约0.5g，经筛选后可得到5-10块抗性愈伤组织，此PPT抗性的愈伤组织用PCR和Southern杂交检测，证明bar基因已整合到了谷子的基因组中。从转化愈伤组织中已分化出了再生植株。

Biomethane production from grass silage: laboratory assessment to maximise yields

On-farm biogas production is typically associated with forage maize as the biomass source. Digesters are designed and operated with the focus of optimising the conditions for this feedstock. Thus, such systems may not be ideally suited to the digestion of grass. Ireland has ca. 3.85 million ha of grassland. Annual excess grass, surplus to livestock requirements, could potentially fuel an anaerobic digestion industry. Biomethane associated with biomass from 1.1 % of grassland in Ireland, could potentially generate over 10 % renewable energy supply in transport. This study aims to identify and optimise technologies for the production of biomethane from grass silage. Mono-digestion of grass silage and co-digestion with slurry, as would occur on Irish farms, is investigated in laboratory trials. Grass silage was shown to have 7 times greater methane potential than dairy slurry on a fresh weight basis (107 m3 t-1 v 16 m3 t-1). However, comprehensive trace element profiles indicated that cobalt, iron and nickel are deficient in mono-digestion of grass silage at a high organic loading rate (OLR) of 4.0 kg VS m-3 d-1. The addition of a slurry co-substrate was beneficial due to its wealth of essential trace elements. To stimulate hydrolysis of high lignocellulose grass silage, particle size reduction (physical) and rumen fluid addition (biological) were investigated. In a continuous trial, digestion of grass silage of <1 cm particle size achieved a specific methane yield of 371 L CH4 kg-1 VS when coupled with rumen fluid addition. The concept of demand driven biogas was also examined in a two-phase digestion system (leaching with UASB). When demand for electricity is low it is recommended to disconnect the UASB from the system and recirculate rumen fluid to increase volatile fatty acid (VFA) and soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD) production whilst minimising volatile solids (VS) destruction. At times of high demand for electricity, connection of the UASB increases the destruction of volatiles and associated biogas production. The above experiments are intended to assess a range of biogas production options from grass silage with a specific focus on maximising methane yields and provide a guideline for feasible design and operation of on-farm digesters in Ireland.

Alternative methodologies - stretching the in vitro box

Current gas-based in vitro evaluation systems are extremely powerful research techniques. However they have the potential to generate a great deal more than simple fermentation dynamics. Details from four experiments are presented in which adaptation, and novel application, of an in vitro system allowed widely differing objectives to be examined. In the first two studies, complement methodologies were utilised. In such assays, an activity or outcome is inferred through the occurrence of a secondary event rather than by direct observation. Using an N-deficient incubation medium, the increase in starch fermentation, when supplemented with individual amino acids (i.e., known level of N) relative to that of urea (i.e., known quantity and N availability), provided an estimate of their microbial utilisation. Due to the low level of response observed with some arnino acids (notably methionine and lysine), it was concluded, that they may not need to be offered in a rumen-inert form to escape rumen microbial degradation. In another experiment, the extent to which degradation of plant cell wall components was inhibited by lipid supplementation was evaluated using fermentation gas release profiles of washed hay. The different responses due to lipid source and level of inclusion suggested that the degree of rumen protection required to ameliorate this depression was supplement dependent. That in vitro inocula differ in their microbial composition is of little interest per se, as long as the outcome is the same (i.e., that similar substrates are degraded at comparable rates and end-product release is equivalent). However where a microbial population is deficient in a particular activity, increasing the level of inoculation will have no benefit. Estimates of hydrolytic activity were obtained by examining fermentation kinetics of specific substrates. A number of studies identified a fundamental difference between rumen fluid and faecal inocula, with the latter having a lower fibrolytic activity, which could not be completely attributed to microbial numbers. The majority of forage maize is offered as an ensiled feed, however most of the information on which decisions such as choice of variety, crop management and harvesting date are made is based on fresh crop measurements. As such, an attempt was made to estimate ensiled maize quality from an in vitro analysis of the fresh crop. Fermentation profiles and chemical analysis confirmed changes in crop composition over the growing season, and loss of labile carbohydrates during ensiling. In addition, examination of degradation residues allowed metabolizable energy (ME) contents to be estimated. Due to difficulties associated with starch analysis, the observation that this parameter could be predicted by difference (together with an assumed degradability), allowed an estimate of ensiled maize ME to be developed from fresh material. In addition, the contribution of the main carbohydrates towards ME showed the importance of delaying harvest until maximum starch content has been achieved. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Plant and invertebrate resources for farmland birds in pastoral landscapes

On 16 UK livestock holdings within pastoral landscapes, we investigated the provision of plant and invertebrate resources for farmland birds in spring barley and winter wheat cereal-based whole crop silages as alternatives to maize and grass silages. The benefits of low input barley systems were also investigated; barley fields were subjected to two separate herbicide sub-treatments on a split-field design (high input broad-spectrum or low input narrow spectrum herbicides). The abundance of plant resources and invertebrates was assessed for three growing seasons during summer and winter for each crop type. The study clearly demonstrated the value of spring barley for the provision of plant resources when compared to the other silage cropping systems, whilst invertebrate responses were variable. No differences in plant and invertebrate resources were found between the barley treatments. Throughout the year, forage maize afforded the lowest provision of resources for farmland birds, and because it is likely that maize will continue to be grown in pastoral areas, the value of this habitat needs to be improved if farmland birds are to benefit. To provide plant and invertebrate resources for farmland birds in pastoral landscapes we strongly advocate the growing of spring sown barley whole-crop silage followed by over-wintering stubbles. © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Effects of row spacing and intercrop on maize grain yield and forage production of palisade grass

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Energy demand in soybean seeding on maize straw intercropped with forage

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)