Does firefighting foam affect the growth of some Australian native plants?

Firefighting foams (Class A foams) are an effective and widespread firefighting tool, and are frequently used in environmentally sensitive areas. They are known to be ecologically damaging in aquatic environments; however, their impacts at the plant species or ecosystem level are relatively unknown. Reports of shoot damage to plants, suppressed flowering and changes in plant community composition suggest that the environmental damage caused by their use may be unacceptable. Applications of four levels of foam to seedlings of seven Australian plant species, from five representative and widespread families, showed no detectable impacts on a range of vegetative growth characteristics. The results are encouraging for continued use of firefighting foam in sensitive natural habitats.

Does application of firefighting foam affect soil invertebrates?

Firefighting foam (Class A foam) is an effective and widespread frrefighting tool often used in environmentally sensitive areas. Although, firefighting foam is known to be ecologically damaging to aquatic invertebrates, application of 1.0% foam to heathland soils showed no detectable impacts on soil invertebrate orders sampled over several months. The results are encouraging for the continued use of Class A foam as a fire suppression technique in areas with high conservation value.

The impact of sleep restriction while performing simulated physical firefighting work on cortisol and heart rate responses

PURPOSE: Physical work and sleep restriction are two stressors faced by firefighters, yet the combined impact these demands have on firefighters' acute stress responses is poorly understood. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect firefighting work and sleep restriction have on firefighters' acute cortisol and heart rate (HR) responses during a simulated 3-day and 2-night fire-ground deployment. METHODS: Firefighters completed multiple days of simulated physical work separated by either an 8-h (control condition; n = 18) or 4-h sleep opportunity (sleep restriction condition; n = 17). Salivary cortisol was sampled every 2 h, and HR was measured continuously each day. RESULTS: On day 2 and day 3 of the deployment, the sleep restriction condition exhibited a significantly higher daily area under the curve cortisol level and an elevated cortisol profile in the afternoon and evening when compared with the control condition. Firefighters' HR decreased across the simulation, but there were no significant differences found between conditions. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight the protective role an 8-h sleep opportunity between shifts of firefighting work has on preserving normal cortisol levels when compared to a 4-h sleep opportunity which resulted in elevated afternoon and evening cortisol. Given the adverse health outcomes associated with chronically high cortisol, especially later in the day, future research should examine how prolonged exposure to firefighting work (including restricted sleep) affects firefighters' cortisol levels long term. Furthermore, monitoring cortisol levels post-deployment will determine the minimum recovery time firefighters need to safely return to the fire-ground.

The impact of sleep restriction and simulated physical firefighting work on acute inflammatory stress responses

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the effect restricted sleep has on wildland firefighters' acute cytokine levels during 3 days and 2 nights of simulated physical wildfire suppression work. METHODS: Firefighters completed multiple days of physical firefighting work separated by either an 8-h (Control condition; n = 18) or 4-h (Sleep restriction condition; n = 17) sleep opportunity each night. Blood samples were collected 4 times a day (i.e., 06:15, 11:30, 18:15, 21:30) from which plasma cytokine levels (IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-10) were measured. RESULTS: The primary findings for cytokine levels revealed a fixed effect for condition that showed higher IL-8 levels among firefighters who received an 8-h sleep each night. An interaction effect demonstrated differing increases in IL-6 over successive days of work for the SR and CON conditions. Fixed effects for time indicated that IL-6 and IL-4 levels increased, while IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-8 levels decreased. There were no significant effects for IL-10 observed. CONCLUSION: Findings demonstrate increased IL-8 levels among firefighters who received an 8-h sleep when compared to those who had a restricted 4-h sleep. Firefighters' IL-6 levels increased in both conditions which may indicate that a 4-h sleep restriction duration and/or period (i.e., 2 nights) was not a significant enough stressor to affect this cytokine. Considering the immunomodulatory properties of IL-6 and IL-4 that inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines, the rise in IL-6 and IL-4, independent of increases in IL-1β and TNF-α, could indicate a non-damaging response to the stress of simulated physical firefighting work. However, given the link between chronically elevated cytokine levels and several diseases, further research is needed to determine if firefighters' IL-8 and IL-6 levels are elevated following repeated firefighting deployments across a fire season and over multiple fire seasons.

Acute psychophysiological relationships between mood, inflammatory and cortisol changes in response to simulated physical firefighting work and sleep restriction

This study examined how changes in wildland firefighters' mood relate to cytokine and cortisol levels in response to simulated physical firefighting work and sleep restriction. Firefighters completed 3 days of simulated wildfire suppression work separated by an 8-h (control condition; n = 18) or 4-h sleep opportunity (sleep restriction condition; n = 17) each night. Firefighters' mood was assessed daily using the Mood Scale II and Samn-Perelli fatigue scale. Participants also provided samples for the determination of salivary cortisol and pro- (IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory (IL-4, IL-10) cytokine levels. An increase in the positive mood dimension Happiness was related to a rise in IL-8 and TNF-α in the sleep restriction condition. A rise in the positive mood dimension Activation among sleep restricted firefighters was also related to higher IL-6 levels. An increase in the negative mood dimension Fatigue in the sleep restriction condition was associated with increased IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10 and cortisol levels. In addition, an increase in Fear among sleep restricted firefighters was associated with a rise in TNF-α. Elevated positive mood and immune activation may reflect an appropriate response by the firefighters to these stressors. To further understand this relationship, subsequent firefighting-based research is needed that investigates whether immune changes are a function of affective arousal linked to the expression of positive moods. Positive associations between negative mood and inflammatory and cortisol levels to physical work and restricted sleep provide useful information to fire agencies about subjective fire-ground indicators of physiological changes.

Simulated firefighting task performance and physiology under very hot conditions

PURPOSE: To assess the impact of very hot (45°C) conditions on the performance of, and physiological responses to, a simulated firefighting manual-handling task compared to the same work in a temperate environment (18°C). METHODS: Ten male volunteer firefighters performed a 3-h protocol in both 18°C (CON) and 45°C (VH). Participants intermittently performed 12 × 1-min bouts of raking, 6 × 8-min bouts of low-intensity stepping, and 6 × 20-min rest periods. The area cleared during the raking task determined work performance. Core temperature, skin temperature, and heart rate were measured continuously. Participants also periodically rated their perceived exertion (RPE) and thermal sensation. Firefighters consumed water ad libitum. Urine specific gravity (USG) and changes in body mass determined hydration status. RESULTS: Firefighters raked 19% less debris during the VH condition. Core and skin temperature were 0.99 ± 0.20 and 5.45 ± 0.53°C higher, respectively, during the VH trial, and heart rate was 14-36 beats.min(-1) higher in the VH trial. Firefighters consumed 2950 ± 1034 mL of water in the VH condition, compared to 1290 ± 525 in the CON trial. Sweat losses were higher in the VH (1886 ± 474 mL) compared to the CON trial (462 ± 392 mL), though both groups were hydrated upon protocol completion (USG < 1.020). Participants' average RPE was higher in the VH (15.6 ± 0.9) compared to the CON trial (12.6 ± 0.9). Similarly, the firefighers' thermal sensation scores were significantly higher in the VH (6.4 ± 0.5) compared to the CON trial (4.4 ± 0.4). CONCLUSIONS: Despite the decreased work output and aggressive fluid replacement observed in the VH trial, firefighters' experienced increases in thermal stress, and exertion. Fire agencies should prioritize the health and safety of fire personnel in very hot temperatures, and consider the impact of reduced productivity on fire suppression efforts.

Sleep restriction across a simulated firefighting deployment: the impact on acute stress responses

 This research demonstrated how exposure to physical work and restricted sleep can trigger an increase in firefighters’ immune and hormonal stress responses. The work also explored psychophysiological interactions between responses, with findings that suggest when sleep restricted, firefighters’ show a worsening in mood which relates to elevated hormonal and immune changes.

Firefighting and rescue procedures in theaters of operations.

Includes index.

Operator's and unit maintenance manual : truck, firefighting, 1000 GPM multipurpose, model 2500L, NSN 4210-01-193-3621.

"30 October 1987."

Intermediate direct support and intermediate general support maintenance manual : truck, firefighting, 1000 GPM multipurpose, model 2500L, NSN 4210-01-193-3621.

"30 November 1987."

Firefighters' exposure biomonitoring: Impact of firefighting activities on levels of urinary monohydroxyl metabolites

The concentrations of six urinary monohydroxyl metabolites (OH-PAHs) of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, namely 1-hydroxynaphthalene, 1-hydroxyacenaphthene, 2-hydroxyfluorene, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 1-hydroxypyrene (1OHPy), and 3-hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene, were assessed in the post-shift urine of wildland firefighters involved in fire combat activities at six Portuguese fire corporations, and compared with those of non-exposed subjects. Overall, median levels of urinary individual and total OH-PAHs (ΣOH-PAHs) suggest an increased exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during firefighting activities with ΣOH-PAH levels in exposed firefighters 1.7-35 times higher than in non-exposed ones. Urinary 1-hydroxynaphthalene and/or 1-hydroxyacenapthene were the predominant compounds, representing 63-98% of ΣOH-PAHs, followed by 2-hydroxyfluorene (1-17%), 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (1-13%), and 1OHPy (0.3-10%). A similar profile was observed when gender discrimination was considered. Participation in fire combat activities promoted an increase of the distribution percentage of 1-hydroxynaphthalene and 1-hydroxyacenaphthene, while contributions of 1-hydroxyphenanthrene and 1OHPy decreased. The detected urinary 1OHPy concentrations (1.73×10(-2) to 0.152μmol/mol creatinine in exposed subjects versus 1.21×10(-2) to 5.44×10(-2)μmol/mol creatinine in non-exposed individuals) were lower than the benchmark level (0.5μmol/mol creatinine) proposed by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. This compound, considered the biomarker of exposure to PAHs, was the less abundant one from the six analyzed biomarkers. Thus the inclusion of other metabolites, in addition to 1OHPy, in future studies is suggested to better estimate firefighters' occupational exposure to PAHs. Moreover, strong to moderate Spearman correlations were observed between individual compounds and ΣOH-PAHs corroborating the prevalence of an emission source.

Automatic wildfire detection and simulation using optical information from unmanned aerial systems

In many parts of the world, uncontrolled fires in sparsely populated areas are a major concern as they can quickly grow into large and destructive conflagrations in short time spans. Detecting these fires has traditionally been a job for trained humans on the ground, or in the air. In many cases, these manned solutions are simply not able to survey the amount of area necessary to maintain sufficient vigilance and coverage. This paper investigates the use of unmanned aerial systems (UAS) for automated wildfire detection. The proposed system uses low-cost, consumer-grade electronics and sensors combined with various airframes to create a system suitable for automatic detection of wildfires. The system employs automatic image processing techniques to analyze captured images and autonomously detect fire-related features such as fire lines, burnt regions, and flammable material. This image recognition algorithm is designed to cope with environmental occlusions such as shadows, smoke and obstructions. Once the fire is identified and classified, it is used to initialize a spatial/temporal fire simulation. This simulation is based on occupancy maps whose fidelity can be varied to include stochastic elements, various types of vegetation, weather conditions, and unique terrain. The simulations can be used to predict the effects of optimized firefighting methods to prevent the future propagation of the fires and greatly reduce time to detection of wildfires, thereby greatly minimizing the ensuing damage. This paper also documents experimental flight tests using a SenseFly Swinglet UAS conducted in Brisbane, Australia as well as modifications for custom UAS.

Real-time decision aid display

Gemstone Team Future Firefighting Advancements

Equipamento de produção de água gelada para melhorar a eficácia do combate a incêndios florestais

Trabalho Final de Mestrado para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica