Neuroprotective Effects of Diazepam, Carbamazepine, Phenytoin and Ketamine after Pilocarpine-induced Status Epilepticus

Cell damage and spatial localization deficits are often reported as long-term consequences of pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of repeated drug administration after long-lasting status epilepticus. Groups of six to eight Wistar rats received microinjections of pilocarpine (2.4 mg/mu l, 1 mu l) in the right dorsal hippocampus to induce a status epilepticus, which was attenuated by thiopental injection (35 mg/kg, i.p.) 3 hrs after onset. Treatments consisted of i.p. administration of diazepam, ketamine, carbamazepine, or phenytoin at 4, 28, 52, and 76 hr after the onset of status epilepticus. Two days after the treatments, rats were tested in the Morris water maze and 1 week after the cognitive tests, their brains were submitted to histology to perform haematoxylin and eosin staining and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunofluorescence detection. Post-status epilepticus rats exhibited extensive gliosis and cell loss in the hippocampal CA1, CA3 (70% cell loss for both areas) and dentate gyrus (60%). Administration of all drugs reduced cell loss in the hippocampus, with best effects observed in brains slices of diazepam-treated animals, which showed less than 30% of loss in the three areas and decreased GFAP immunolabelling. Treatments improved spatial navigation during training trials and probe trial, with exception of ketamine. Interestingly, in the probe trial, only diazepam-treated animals showed preference for the goal quadrant. Our data point to significant neuroprotective effects of repeated administration of diazepam against status epilepticus-induced cell damage and cognitive disturbances.

Social separation and diazepam withdrawal increase anxiety in the elevated plus-maze and serotonin turnover in the median raphe and hippocampus

The present work aimed to evaluate the effects of social separation for 14 days (chronic stress) and of withdrawal from a 14-day treatment with diazepam (acute stress) on the exploratory behaviour of male rats in the elevated plus-maze and on serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) turnover in different brain structures. Social separation had an anxiogenic effect, evidenced by fewer entries into, and less time spent on the open arms of the elevated plus-maze. Separation also selectively increased 5-hydroxytryptamine turnover in the hippocampus and median raphe nucleus. Diazepam withdrawal had a similar anxiogenic effect in grouped animals and increased 5-hydroxytryptamine turnover in the same brain structures. Chronic treatment with imipramine during the 14 days of separation prevented the behavioural and neurochemical changes caused by social separation. It is suggested that the increase in anxiety determined by both acute and chronic stress is mediated by the activation of the median raphe nucleus-hippocampal 5-hydroxytryptamine pathway.

Oral Medication With Diazepam or Midazolam Associated or Not With Clonidine for Oculoplastic Office Surgery Under Local Anesthesia

Purpose: To compare the level of sedation of oral administration of diazepam or midazolam associated or not with clonidine and their effects on upper eyelid margin position, heart rate, arterial pressure, and oxygen saturation. Methods: Seventy consecutive healthy patients American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) grade I-II scheduled for lower eyelid blepharoplasty were randomized into 4 groups according to the oral sedative agent used (group 1, diazepam 10 mg; group 2, diazepam 10 mg plus clonidine 0.15 mg; group 3, midazolam 15 mg; group 4, midazolam plus clonidine 0.15 mg). For all patients, the midpupil-to-upper eyelid margin distance, the heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and oxygen saturation were recorded before and 1 hour after the administration of oral medication. The level of sedation at the time of surgery was measured with the Michigan University scale. Results: The depth of sedation was significantly more pronounced with midazolam (median score = 2) than with diazepam (median score = 1). Clonidine slightly increased the level of sedation of both diazepam and midazolam. The diastolic arterial blood pressure drop with midazolam associated or not with clonidine was significantly greater than with diazepam. The mean upper eyelid margin position shift (-1.42 mm) verified when clonidine was associated with midazolam was also significantly greater than with diazepam. Discussion: Oral sedation with diazepam or midazolam associated or not with clonidine is safe for ASA grade I-II patients. The systemic effects of diazepam and midazolam were small and very similar. The sedation induced by midazolam was clearly greater than that induced by diazepam. However, this higher level of sedation was accompanied by a more important shift in upper eyelid margin position.

Diazepam decreases leukocyte-endothelium interactions in situ

High doses of diazepam reduce the inflammatory paw edema in rats. This effect was attributed to an action of diazepam on the Translocator Protein (TSPO). We evaluated the effects of diazepam (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) on leukocyte rolling and migration. In carrageenan-induced acute inflammation, diazepam decreased the interaction of leukocytes with endothelial cells (rolling) and the number of leukocytes in the mesentery (migration). RU486 (antagonist of glucocorticoid receptors) reduced the effects of diazepam on leukocyte rolling and migration, suggesting a participation of endogenous corticosteroids. We also showed that the effects of diazepam on leukocyte-endothelium interactions are mediated by nitric oxide (NO), since prior treatment with l-arginine (precursor of NO) partially precludes the inhibitory effects of diazepam; conversely, pretreatment with L-NAME (false substrate of the NO synthase) somewhat potentiates the effects of diazepam. The pathways that underlie the effects of diazepam remain to be further elucidated, but we believe that both local and systemic mechanisms may overlap to explain the influence of diazepam on leukocyte-endothelium interactions.

Comparison of ketamine and S(+)-ketamine, with romifidine and diazepam, for total intravenous anesthesia in horses

Objective To compare the quality of induction and recovery, degree of muscle relaxation, clinically apparent potency and cardiopulmonary effects of racemic ketamine or S(+)-ketamine when used for total intravenous anesthesia in horses. Study design Prospective randomized clinical trial Animals Sixteen healthy stallions (323 +/- 99 kg), with a mean age of 6.2 years, undergoing castration. Methods Horses were pre-medicated with romifidine IV, 15 minutes before induction of anesthesia. Each animal was then randomly allocated to receive either diazepam and ketamine (DK) or diazepam and S(+)-ketamine (DKS) at similar doses to induce anesthesia. For maintenance of anesthesia, 1/4 of the initial bolus of ketamine alone or S(+)-ketamine alone was administered, as required. Heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR) and systolic blood pressure were measured before and at 10-minute intervals during recumbency. Time from induction to lateral recumbency, time from induction to first additional dose, time from last additional dose to return to sternal posture and time from last additional dose to standing were recorded, and a subjective evaluation of quality of induction, endotracheal intubation, muscle relaxation and quality of recovery was recorded. Results The quality of the induction and duration of anesthesia were similar in both groups. HR, RR and systolic blood pressure were not significantly different between groups. Although some animals which received DKS showed some minor excitatory effects (25% of them) during the induction of anesthesia, these animals received 32% fewer doses for the maintenance of anesthesia and the recovery scores were better. Conclusions and clinical relevance S(+)-ketamine showed some advantages over racemic ketamine, such as less anesthetic agent being required and better overall recovery from anesthesia. Further studies are needed to obtain the optimum induction dose for the S(+)-ketamine.

Tratamento do tétano com diazepam

São descritos 10 casos de tétano do recém-nascido e 19 de tétano não umbilical, tratados pelo diazepam, como único medicamento mio-relaxante e ansiolítico. Houve 7 mortes entre os primeiros (70%) e 4 entre os últimos (21,1%). A experiência anterior do Serviço acusava mortalidade de 90% para os casos de tétano umbilical e 25,2% para os outros. Conquanto a diferença entre os grupos não possa ser considerada significativa, somos conduzidos a concluir: 1.°) - A ação mio-relaxante e ansiolítica do diazepam mostrou ser, nestas observações, pelo menos igual e, provàvelmente, superior às outras drogas até agora empregadas isoladamente ou em associação, em nosso Serviço; 2.°) - Sua administração por via venosa, a mais eficiente, é de fácil realização. Não houve em nossa casuística, apesar de longos períodos do uso do fármaco, nenhum caso de tromboflebite; 3.°) - Embora muitas vêzes as doses empregadas tenham sido freqüentemente muito elevadas os fenômenos colaterais imputáveis à droga são mínimos; 4.°) - Em nenhum caso se pode atribuir ao medicamento a responsabilidade pelos desenlaces fatais ocorridos.

Experiência com diazepam isolado e associado à mefenesina na terapêutica do tétano

Os autores apresentam sua experiência com o uso do diazepam isoladamente ou associado com a mefenesina no tratamento do tétano. Mostram que o diazepam tem potente efeito sedativo quando usado por via I.M. ou I.V. Seu efeito miorrelaxante varia de acordo com o esquema terapêutico, não tendo um efeito relaxador muito intenso quando usado por via venosa em solução gôta a gôta. Quando usado por via venosa, diretamente, produz relaxamento rápido e intensa sedação, porém êste efeito relaxdhte è de duração fugaz, variando de 30 minutos a 2 horas. Associando o diazepam por via intravenosa direta, em doses fracionadas cm períodos regulares, com a mefenesina em solução gôta a gôta, obtiveram bom ejeito relaxante e sedativo possibilitando a diminuição da dosagem da mefenesina. Tiveram alguns paraefeitos atribuíveis ao diazepam, principalmente distúrbios da conduta, alucinações e coma medicamentoso em 2 casos, embora não sendo êstes os que receberam as maiores doses do medicamento. Todos os paraefeitos regrediram com a suspensão da droga ou com a redução das doses. Os dois pacientes que foram sedados até o coma, não apresentaram quaisquer distúrbios respiratório ou circulatório, mostrando que a droga não deprime os centros cárdio-respiratório mesmo em elevadas doses. Concluem que o diazepam é um medicamento de grande utilidade como miorrelaxante de ação rápida e sedativo de ação prolongada no tétano, deixando uma larga margem de segurança entre as doses sedativas e depressoras dos centros cárdio-respiratório. Sugerem os autores que a associação diazepam + mefenesina é talvez a que melhores resultados proporcionou até o presente no tratamento do tétano generalizado.

Tratamento do tétano: estudo comparativo entre mefenesina e benzodiazepínicos (diazepam)

Neste trabalho, os autores analisam o resultado do tratamento do tétano em 127 pacientes com mefenesina e em 84 com diazepam. Não há diferença estatisticamente significativa da mortalidade entre os tratados com diazepam e mefenesina. Entretanto, o primeiro é praticamente inócuo, fácil de manejar e não determina endoflebite.

Efecto de la abstinencia a Diazepam en el desarrollo de dependencia a etanol: Tratamiento farmacológico

Numerosos estudios sugieren que los efectos conductuales y neuroquímicos del etanol y las benzodiazepinas (BDZs) están estrechamente relacionados. La administración aguda de BDZs y etanol potencia el efecto del GABA, sugiriendo que ambas drogas producirían efectos depresores del sistema nervioso central por incremento de la neurotransmisión GABAérgica. La administración prolongada de etanol y BDZS produce tolerancia a alguno de los efectos agudos tanto de la droga primaria, como de un agente relacionado (tolerancia cruzada). Este hecho se ha observado tanto en humanos como en animales. La interrupción del tratamiento crónico con dichas drogas provoca la aparición del síndrome de abstinencia. (...) Considerando que la ansiedad es un factor crítico tanto en la abstinencia a BDZs como en la génesis y mantenimiento del alcoholismo y que la abstinencia a diazepam podría provocar alteraciones a largo plazo en la capacidad de adaptación al estrés, se podría hipotetizar que esos efectos podrían estar implicados en la recurrencia al consumo de BDZs, etanol u otras drogas de abuso, luego de la interrupción de un tratamiento crónico. De lo anteriormente expuesto se deduce que fármacos que normalicen potenciales alteraciones en los mecanismos adaptativos frente al estrés podrían ser de utilidad para revertir las alteraciones observadas durante la expresión del sindrome de abstinencia inducido por etanol y BDZs. En relación a este tema, hemos demostrado recientemente que carbamazepina (CBZ), droga efectiva para el tratamiento del sindrome de abstinencia inducido por BDZs y etanol, revierte las alteraciones conductuales y neuroquímicas descriptas en animales con abstinencia a BDZs. Estos resultados sugieren que el tratamiento con dicho fármaco podría ser de utilidad terapéutica para la normalización de las alteraciones inducidas por la interrupción del consumo. Objetivos El objetivo general del presente proyecto es investigar una posible facilitación del desarrollo de dependencia al etanol en animales previamente sometidos a la abstinencia de benzodiazepinas. Este objetivo se extiende al estudio de nuevas alternativas terapéuticas que tengan capacidad potencial para revertir las alteraciones producidas por la abstinencia a etanol.

Efeitos sedativos e cardiovasculares do midazolam e do diazepam, associados ou não a clonidina, em pacientes submetidos a estudos hemodinâmicos por suspeita de doença arterial coronariana

FUNDAMENTO: A sedação durante a cineangiocoronariografia tem sido pouco estudada e saber qual é a melhor droga para sedar esses pacientes é um questionamento importante. OBJETIVO: Avaliar a qualidade da sedação e os efeitos sobre a freqüência cardíaca (FC) e a pressão arterial (PA) do midazolam e do diazepam, associados ou não a clonidina, em pacientes com suspeita de doença coronariana. MÉTODOS: Foi desenvolvido ensaio clínico prospectivo, duplo-cego, randomizado, controlado, com 160 pacientes divididos em cinco grupos de 32 pacientes cada, de acordo com o fármaco utilizado: grupo C (clonidina 0,5 µg/kg); grupo M (midazolam 40 µg/kg); grupo MC (associação de midazolam 40 µg/kg e clonidina 0,5 µg/kg); grupo D (diazepam 40 µg.kg); e grupo DC (associação de diazepam 40 µg/kg e clonidina 0,5 µg/kg). A sedação foi avaliada com base na escala de Ramsay e no consumo de meperidina 0,04 mg.kg-1. A PA invasiva, a FC e o escore de sedação foram analisados a cada cinco minutos em quatro diferentes momentos. RESULTADOS: Os pacientes que utilizaram midazolam apresentaram maiores escores de sedação e variação da FC e da PA (p < 0,05). Os que utilizaram diazepam ou clonidina tiveram menores escores de sedação e mais satisfatórios para a realização do exame e apresentaram menor variação da PA e da FC (p > 0,05). CONCLUSÃO: O midazolam foi associado a maior efeito sedativo e cardiovascular enquanto o diazepam causou menor efeito sedativo e cardiovascular. A clonidina e o diazepam tiveram efeitos semelhantes na PA, na FC e na sedação.

Oxytocin enhances the inhibitory effects of diazepam in the rat central medial amygdala.

Oxytocin is a neuropeptide that can reduce neophobia and improve social affiliation. In vitro, oxytocin induces a massive release of GABA from neurons in the lateral division of the central amygdala which results in inhibition of a subpopulation of peripherally projecting neurons in the medial division of the central amygdala (CeM). Common anxiolytics, such as diazepam, act as allosteric modulators of GABA(A) receptors. Because oxytocin and diazepam act on GABAergic transmission, it is possible that oxytocin can potentiate the inhibitory effects of diazepam if both exert their pre, - respectively postsynaptic effects on the same inhibitory circuit in the central amygdala. We found that in CeM neurons in which diazepam increased the inhibitory postsynaptic current (IPSC) decay time, TGOT (a specific oxytocin receptor agonist) increased IPSC frequency. Combined application of diazepam and TGOT resulted in generation of IPSCs with increased frequency, decay times as well as amplitudes. While individual saturating concentrations of TGOT and diazepam each decreased spontaneous spiking frequency of CeM neurons to similar extent, co-application of the two was still able to cause a significantly larger decrease. These findings show that oxytocin and diazepam act on different components of the same GABAergic circuit in the central amygdala and that oxytocin can facilitate diazepam effects when used in combination. This raises the possibility that neuropeptides could be clinically used in combination with currently used anxiolytic treatments to improve their therapeutic efficacy.

Diazepam e nordiazepam em plasma: métodos de extração líquido-líquido e em fase sólida no pré-tratamento de amostras para análise cromatográfica em fase líquida

Analysis of diazepam (DZP) and its active metabolite nordiazepam (NDZP) in plasma is commonly performed in clinical medicine to ensure proper therapeutic effects while minimizing the incidence of toxicity. This study aimed to optimize analytical parameters and compare two pre-treatment techniques, liquid-liquid (LLE) and solid phase extraction (SPE), as well as liquid chromatographic conditions to analyze simultaneously DZP and NDZP in plasma from 20 patients treated with a daily dose of 10 mg. Both techniques showed to be well in line with the international criteria for analytical validation, which permitted to quantify DZP (66.2 - 1148.6 ng mL-1) and NDZP (138.5 - 808.6 ng mL -1) in all samples. The correlation coefficients between SPE and LLE were respectively 0.9729 for DZP and 0.9643 for NDZP.

Behavioral profiles displayed by rats in an elevated asymmetric plus-maze: effects of diazepam

When rats are exposed to unknown environments where novelty and fear-inducing characteristics are present (conflictive environments), some specific behaviors are induced and exploration is apparently modulated by fear. In our laboratory, a new type of plus-maze was designed as a model of conflictive exploration. The maze is composed of four arms with different geometrical characteristics, differing from each other by the presence or absence of walls. The degree of asymmetry was as follows: NW, no wall arm; SW, a single high wall present; HL, a low and a high wall present, and HH, two high walls present. The four arms were arranged at 90o angles and the apparatus was called the elevated asymmetric plus-maze (APM). The purpose of the present study was to assess the behavioral profile of rats exposed for a single time to the APM with or without treatment with benzodiazepine. Increasing doses of diazepam were injected intraperitoneally in several groups of male, 90-day-old Holtzman rats. Distilled water was injected in control animals. Thirty minutes after treatment all rats were exposed singly to a 5-min test in the APM. Diazepam induced a biphasic modification of exploration in the NW and SW arms. The increase in the exploration score was evident at low doses of diazepam (0.25-1.0 mg/kg body weight) and the decrease in exploration was found with the higher doses of diazepam (2.0-3.0 mg/kg body weight). Non-exploratory behaviors (permanency) were not affected by benzodiazepine treatment. In the HL arm, exploration was not modified but permanency was increased in a dose-dependent manner. In the HH arm, exploration and permanency were not affected. Results are compatible with the idea that exploration-processing mechanisms in conflictive environments are modulated by fear-processing mechanisms of the brain.