The interaction of nitrogen application and temperature during reproductive stage on spikelet sterility in field-grown rice

Increased grain yield in response to high rates of application of nitrogen (N) fertiliser is often limited by increased spikelet sterility, particularly under low temperature conditions in the New South Wales ( NSW) rice industry. In 3 field experiments, different N rates were applied for different sowing dates to investigate the interaction between N rate and temperature during microspore development on spikelet sterility and grain yield. In one experiment the effect of water depth on spikelet sterility was also investigated. Engorged pollen production, spikelet sterility, and yield and its components were recorded. Application of N affected a few different processes that lead into spikelet sterility. Application of N at both pre-flood (PF) and panicle initiation ( PI) significantly reduced the number of engorged pollen grains per anther, which was negatively correlated with spikelet sterility. Application of N and low temperature during microspore development with the absence of deep water also decreased pollen engorgement efficiency ( the percentage of pollen grains that were engorged). Application of N further increased spikelet density, which, in turn, increased both spikelet sterility and grain yield. The combined effect of spikelet density and low temperature during microspore development explained the 44% of variation in the number of engorged pollen grains per anther. Grain yield was decreased by low temperature during microspore development in the shallow water when N was applied. Spikelet sterility as a result of late sowing was strongly correlated with minimum temperature during flowering. It is concluded that N application reduced pollen number per anther as a result of increased spikelet density, and this made the spikelets more susceptible to low temperature, causing increased spikelet sterility.

Low temperature induced spikelet sterility in rice. I. Nitrogen fertilisation and sensitive reproductive period

Low temperature during panicle development in rice increases spikelet sterility. This effect is exacerbated by high rates of nitrogen (N) application in the field. Spikelet sterility induced by low temperature and N fertilisation was examined in glasshouse experiments to clarify the mechanisms involved. In two glasshouse experiments, 12-h periods of low (18/13degreesC) and high (28/23degreesC) day/night temperatures were imposed over periods of 5-7 days during panicle development, to determine the effects of low temperature and N fertilisation on spikelet sterility. In one experiment, 50% sunlight was imposed together with low temperature to investigate the additive effects of reduced solar radiation and low temperature. The effect of increased tillering due to N fertilisation was examined by a tiller removal treatment in the same experiment. Pollen grain number and spikelet sterility were recorded at heading and harvest, respectively. Although there was no significant effect of low temperature on spikelet sterility in the absence of applied N, low temperature greatly increased spikelet sterility as a result of a reduction in the number of engorged pollen grains per anther in the presence of applied N. Spikelet sterility was strongly correlated with the number of engorged pollen grains per anther. Low temperature during very early ( late stage of spikelet differentiation-pollen mother cell stage) and peak ( second meiotic division stage-early stage of extine formation) microspore development caused a severe reduction in engorged pollen production mainly as a result of reduced total pollen production. Unlike low temperature, the effect of shading was rather small. The increased tillering due to application of high rates of N, increased both spikelet number per plant and spikelet sterility under low temperature conditions. The removal of tillers as they appeared reduced the number of total spikelets per plant and maintained a large number of engorged pollen grains per anther which, in turn, reduced spikelet sterility. The number of engorged pollen grains per anther determined the numbers of intercepted and germinated pollen grains on the stigma. It is concluded that N increased tillering and spikelet number per plant and this, in turn, reduced the number of engorged pollen grains per anther, leading into increased spikelet sterility under low temperature condition.

Low temperature induced spikelet sterility in rice. II. Effects of panicle and root temperatures

Low temperatures impose restrictions on rice (Oryza sativa L.) production at high latitudes. This study is related to low temperature damage that can arise mid-season during the panicle development phase. The objective of this study was to determine whether low temperature experienced by the root, panicle, or foliage is responsible for increased spikelet sterility. In temperature-controlled glasshouse experiments, water depth, and water and air temperatures, were changed independently to investigate the effects of low temperature in the root, panicle, and foliage during microspore development on spikelet sterility. The total number of pollen and number of engorged pollen grains per anther, and the number of intercepted and germinated pollen grains per stigma, were measured. Spikelet sterility was then analysed in relation to the total number of pollen grains per spikelet and the efficiency with which these pollen grains became engorged, were intercepted by the stigma, germinated, and were involved in fertilisation. There was a significant combined effect of average minimum panicle and root temperatures on spikelet sterility that accounted for 86% of the variation in spikelet sterility. Total number of pollen grains per anther was reduced by low panicle temperature, but not by low root temperature. Whereas engorgement efficiency ( the percentage of pollen grains that were engorged) was determined by both root and panicle temperature, germination efficiency (the percentage of germinated pollen grains relative to the number of engorged pollen grains intercepted by the stigma) was determined only by root temperature. Interception efficiency (i.e. percentage of engorged pollen grains intercepted by the stigma), however, was not affected by either root or panicle temperature. Engorgement efficiency was the dominant factor explaining the variation in spikelet sterility. It is concluded that both panicle and root temperature affect spikelet sterility in rice when the plant encounters low temperatures during the microspore development stage.

Genotypic variation for cold tolerance during reproductive development in rice: Screening with cold air and cold water

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants are susceptible to low temperature during the young microspore stage, which occurs 10-12 days before heading. Low temperature at this time increases spikelet sterility which can cause massive yield loss. Increasing the cold tolerance of cultivars can reduce yield variability in temperate rice-growing environments. Two experiments were conducted in cold air screenings and two were conducted in cold water screenings to examine genotypic variation for cold tolerance, explore flowering traits related to spikelet sterility, and investigate whether the results reflect the level of cold tolerance determined previously in the field. Cold air screenings imposed day/night temperatures of 27 degrees C/13 degrees C, 25 degrees C/15 degrees C and 32 degrees C/25 degrees C following particle initiation until 50% heading, while cold water screenings maintained a relatively constant 19 degrees C. The variation in the commencement of low air temperature treatment did not have an effect on the level of spikelet sterility, indicating that exposure to low temperature during the young microspore stage was more important than the duration of exposure. Spikelet sterility of common cultivars showed a significant correlation between cold air and cold water screenings (r(2) = 0.63, p < 0.01), cold air and field screenings (r(2) = 0.52, p < 0.01) and cold water and field screenings (r(2) = 0.53, p < 0.01), indicating that cold air and cold water can be used for screening genotypes for low temperature tolerance. HSC55, M 103 and Jyoudeki were identified as cold tolerant and Doongara, Sasanishiki and Nipponbare as susceptible cultivars. There was a significant negative relationship between spikelet sterility and both the number of engorged pollen grains per anther and anther area only after imposing cold air and cold water treatment hence, it was concluded that these flowering traits were facultative in nature. In addition, cultivars originating from Australia and California were inefficient at producing filled grain with similar sized anthers containing a similar number of engorged pollen grains as cultivars from other origins. One suggested reason for this poor conversion to filled grain of cultivars from Australia and California may be associated with their small stigma area, particularly when exposed to low temperature conditions. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Minimising cold damage during reproductive development among temperate rice genotypes. I. Avoiding low temperature with the use of appropriate sowing time and photoperiod-sensitive varieties

Multiple-sown field trials in 4 consecutive years in the Riverina region of south-eastern Australia provided 24 different combinations of temperature and day length, which enabled the development of crop phenology models. A crop model was developed for 7 cultivars from diverse origins to identify if photoperiod sensitivity is involved in determining phenological development, and if that is advantageous in avoiding low-temperature damage. Cultivars that were mildly photoperiod-sensitive were identified from sowing to flowering and from panicle initiation to flowering. The crop models were run for 47 years of temperature data to quantify the risk of encountering low temperature during the critical young microspore stage for 5 different sowing dates. Cultivars that were mildly photoperiod-sensitive, such as Amaroo, had a reduced likelihood of encountering low temperature for a wider range of sowing dates compared with photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. The benefits of increased photoperiod sensitivity include greater sowing flexibility and reduced water use as growth duration is shortened when sowing is delayed. Determining the optimal sowing date also requires other considerations, e. g. the risk of cold damage at other sensitive stages such as flowering and the response of yield to a delay in flowering under non-limiting conditions. It was concluded that appropriate sowing time and the use of photoperiod-sensitive cultivars can be advantageous in the Riverina region in avoiding low temperature damage during reproductive development.

Minimising cold damage during reproductive development among temperate rice genotypes. II. Genotypic variation and flowering traits related to cold tolerance screening

Low temperature during microspore development increases spikelet sterility and reduces grain yield in rice (Oryza sativa L.). The objectives of this study were to determine genotypic variation in spikelet sterility in the field in response to low-temperature and then to examine the use of physio-morphological traits at flowering to screen for cold tolerance. Multiple-sown field experiments were conducted over 4 consecutive years in the rice-growing region of Australia to increase the likelihood of encountering low-temperature during microspore development. More than 50 cultivars of various origins were evaluated, with 7 cultivars common to all 4 years. The average minimum temperature for 9 days during microspore development was used as a covariate in the analysis to compare cultivars at a similar temperature. The low-temperature conditions in Year 4 identified cold-tolerant cultivars such as Hayayuki and HSC55 and susceptible cultivars such as Sasanishiki and Doongara. After low temperature conditions, spikelet sterility was negatively correlated with the number of engorged pollen grains, anther length, anther area, anther width, and stigma area. The number of engorged pollen grains and anther length were found to be facultative traits as their relationships with spikelet sterility were identified only after cold water exposure and did not exist under non-stressed conditions.

DISTINGUISHING Campa guianensis Aubl. FROM Campa procera D.C. (MELIACEAE) BY MORPHOLOGY OF YOUNG SEEDLINGS

Seedling morphology was studied in Campa guianensisAubl. and Carapa proceraD. C. from germination to 90 days age. In both species germination is hypogeal and cryptocotylar. Both have rare albino seedlings. Though both species have compound leaves when adult, C, proceraputs out an average total of six simple leaves at germination, while leaves of C. guianensisare compound at all stages. This is the best diagnostic character for separation of the two species at the young seedling stage. Not diagnostic, but none the less useful, is the fact, that polyembryonic seeds are often found in C. procera,but not observed in C guianensis.

Atividade fotossintética do bago de uva (Vitis vinifera, cv. Alvarinho) ao longo do desenvolvimento dos cachos em diferentes microambientes de luz

Dissertação de mestrado em Biologia Molecular, Biotecnologia e Bioempreendedorismo em Plantas

Molluscicidal effect of nicotinanilide and its intermediate compounds against a freshwater snail Lymnaea luteola, the vector of animal schistosomiasis

The molluscicidal effect of nicotinanilide was evaluated and compared with niclosamide (2',5-dichloro-4'-nitrosalicylanilide, ethanolamide salt) against different stages of the freshwater snail Lymnaea luteola i.e., eggs, immature, young mature, and adults. Calculated values of lethal concentrations (LC50 and LC90 ) showed that both nicotinanilide and niclosamide as toxic against eggs, immature, and adults. The young mature stage of the snails was comparatively more tolerant to both molluscicides than the other stages. The toxicity of the intermediate compounds of nicotinanilide against the young mature stage of the snails showed them as ineffective. The mortality pattern of the snails exposed to LC90 concentration of these molluscicides showed niclosamide to kill faster (within 8 to 9 h) than nicotinanilide (26 to 28 h). In view of the above studies it may be concluded that both molluscicides are toxic against all the stages of the L. luteola snails.

The role of petals in development of grey mould in strawberries

Studies were conducted in annual crops of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa) (cv. Elsanta to assess the relative importance of petals as an inoculum source of grey mould, caused by Botrytis cinerea and to identify during which period of flower and fruit development the presence of petals has a significant effect on development of grey mould on fruits. In 1998, the incidence of B. cinerea on flower parts was assessed, and the symptoms of grey mould on fruits were characterised with regards to their starting point. The incidence of B. cinerea on petals was 65-85% of those flowers that harboured B. cinerea. The starting point of symptoms was located underneath the sepals in 65-85% of fruits with grey mould, and petals were present at this site in about 50% of the cases. In 1999, four field experiments were conducted to assess the effect of petal removal at different stages of flower and fruit development on incidence of grey mould. The incidence of grey mould on fruits with petals retained till harvest was circa 55% more than on fruits where petals were removed or had dropped naturally by the end of flowering, regardless of planting date or inoculum level of B. cinerea. The incidence of grey mould was hardly different between treatments where petals were removed at young flower stage, old flower stage, or green fruit stage. It is concluded that petals are an effective and stable source of inoculum for fruit infection by B. cinerea. Considering the high probability that retention of petals during fruit expansion and ripening results in fruit infection, the elimination of petals as an inoculum source appears worthwhile even when the incidence of petal retention on fruits is relatively low.

Oppisopimuskoulutus yritysten tuottamana koulutuspalveluna: tavoitteista vaikutuksiin

Työpaikoilla tapahtuvan koulutuksen merkitys korostuu yhteiskunnassa kaikilla tasoilla nyt ja tulevaisuudessa. Tämä väitöstutkimus määrittelee oppisopimuskoulutuksen yritysten tuottamana koulutuspalveluna osana ammatillista tutkintoon johtavaa koulutusta, jota tuotetaan työpaikoilla ja yrityksissä. Väitöstutkimuksessa tarkastellaan niitä tavoitteita, joita yrityksissä oppisopimuskoulutukseen liittyy ja vaikutuksia, joita koulutusta tuottamalla yrityksessä syntyy. Tutkimuksen kohteena ovat eri alojen pienet ja keskisuuret yritykset (pk-yritykset), jotka ovat tuottaneet oppisopimuskoulutusta ja joilla on siitä vuosien kokemus. Lisäksi tutkimukseen osallistui pk-yrityksiä, joille oppisopimuskoulutus ja siihen liittyvä toiminta on vierasta. Tutkimus tuo uutta tietoa vain vähän tutkittuun aikuisten oppisopimuskoulutukseen, mutta ei sulje pois nuorten oppisopimuskoulutukseen liittyviä kysymyksiä. Tutkimus yhdistää oppisopimuskoulutuksen ja koulutuksen tuottamisen yrityksissä, mikä uudistaa sekä oppisopimuskoulutukseen, ammatilliseen koulutukseen, palvelun tuottamiseen että osaamiseen liittyvää teoreettista viitekehystä. Lisäksi tutkimus tuo yrityksille sekä oppisopimuskoulutuksen hallinnollisille tahoille palvelun tuottamisen ja siihen liittyvien tavoitteiden ja vaikutusten näkökulman. Väitöstutkimuksen teoreettinen viitekehys perustuu ja jakautuu kolmeen osaan: palveluun ja sen tuottamiseen, osaamispääomiin ja niiden eri muotoihin sekä vaikutuksiin palvelutuotannossa. Teoreettinen viitekehys kuvaa monimuotoisesti oppisopimuskoulutuksen ilmiötä, jonka olemus muuttuu sen mukaan, miten, kuka tai mikä taho sitä arvioi tai tarkastelee. Väitöstutkimus on empiiriseltä luonteeltaan kvalitatiivinen tutkimus, jonka aineisto on kerätty teemahaastatteluilla vuoden 2013 lopulla ja vuoden 2014 alussa. Aineisto on analysoitu sisällönanalyysillä aineistolähtöisesti. Tutkimusote pohjautuu abduktiiviseen päättelyyn. Tutkimustulokset esitetään ja luokitellaan niin tavoitteiden kuin vaikutusten osalta inhimillisen, rakenteellisen ja suhdepääoman kautta. Tutkimuksen mukaan oppisopimuskoulutuksen vaikutukset nähdään positiivisina ja neutraaleina, eikä alakohtaisia eroja vaikutusten osalta juuri ole. Myönteisten vaikutusten saavuttamiseen liittyy tärkeänä osana arvon luomisen ja tuottamisen kokemus molemmilla koulutukseen osallistuvilla osapuolilla. Lisäksi myönteisten vaikutusten taustalla ovat yrityksen sitoutuminen sekä työn ja koulutuksen johtamisosaaminen. Yrityksissä on tärkeää, että imago kouluttajana on hyvä. Oppisopimuskoulutuksen tuottamisesta syntyneet vaikutukset ovat asetettuja tavoitteita laajemmat, erityisesti rakenteelliseen pääomaan liittyvien vaikutusten osalta. Oppisopimuskoulutuksen vaikuttavuus yrityksessä syntyy asetettujen tavoitteiden ja vaikutusten välisestä suhteesta. Kokonaisuutena voidaan todeta, että oppisopimuskoulutuksen vaikuttavuus ja suorituskyky yrityksissä ovat hyvät, vaikka koulutuksen laatu vaihtelee jonkin verran. Oppisopimuskoulutuksen käynnistäminen, aloittaminen ja tuottaminen liittyvät usein niin sanottuihin oppisopimusagentteihin eli sellaisiin kehityshakuisiin henkilöihin, joilla jossakin elämäntilanteessa on ollut myönteisiä kokemuksia oppisopimuskoulutuksen mahdollisuuksista. Tutkimuksen mukaan oppisopimuskoulutuksen kustannukset koostuvat työsuhteesta, tietopuolisen koulutuksen aikaisesta työstä poissaolosta sekä ohjauksesta ja arvioinnista, mutta koulutusta pidetään taloudellisesti kannattavana. Oppisopimuskoulutuksen tuottamista estävät pääasiassa viestinnän ja tiedottamisen puute, koulutusmahdollisuuden tunnistamatta jääminen, yritysten heikko koulutuskulttuuri sekä epäselvät mielikuvat ja käsitykset. Nuorten oppisopimuskoulutuksen toteuttamisen hidasteina ovat tutkimuksen mukaan työsuhteeseen ja talouteen liittyvät seikat, nuorten kasvun vaiheeseen sisältyvät tekijät sekä monenlaiset pedagogiset ja eettiset kysymykset. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa havaittiin, että nuori on käsitteenä ja viiteryhmänä epämääräinen. Ammatillisen koulutuksen ja oppisopimuskoulutuksen eri muodot ja monet käsitteet myös aiheuttavat epäselvyyttä molemmissa tutkimuksen konteksteissa eli yrityksissä, joissa oppisopimuskoulutusta tuotetaan sekä yrityksissä, joissa sitä ei tuoteta.

Avaliação da atividade gonadal de machos e fêmeas de pescada branca, Plagioscion squamosissimus (Heckel, 1840), (Pisces, Teleostei, Sciaenidae) no rio Pará (PA)

Fêmeas e machos adultos de P. squamosissimus (Pisces, Teleostei, Sciaenidae) foram coletados mensalmente no Rio Pará, que banha a ilha do Capim (PA) (S 010 34. 971`; W 0480 52.932`), durante o período de fevereiro de 2004 a fevereiro de 2005, correspondendo ao total de 234 espécimes. As gônadas foram coletadas, fixadas e processadas de acordo com os métodos usuais utilizados para processamento em parafina e análise em microscopia de luz. A espécie em estudo é uma das principais fontes de proteína animal para a população local, sendo capturada de forma intensa e ininterrupta ao longo do ano. Com base em informações dos pescadores locais, essa captura parece estar determinando uma aparente diminuição quantitativa e qualitativa em seus estoques locais. A espécie apresenta desova parcelada e o desenvolvimento gonadal foi caracterizado nos estádios de repouso, maturação, maduro e esvaziado ou semi-esvaziado. Gônadas maduras foram encontradas nos meses de dezembro, janeiro e julho. A análise de correlação entre o estádio gonadal maduro e a variação temporal da relação gonadossomática (ΔRGS) indica também a ocorrência de desova nos respectivos meses. Não obstante, as informações obtidas da correlação entre a ΔRGS e a média de oócitos maduros e percentual de espermatozóides por túbulo seminífero, respectivamente, também indicaram haver desova nos respectivos meses, sendo que aparentemente a espécie apresenta uma desova mais intensa ou desova principal entre os meses de dezembro e janeiro (inverno), e outra desova menos intensa ou secundária no mês de julho (verão). Com base no método da morfologia tubular, foram determinados oito estádios do ciclo do epitélio seminífero (CES), sendo que no estádio 1 os túbulos seminíferos são compostos por espermatogônias primárias e cistos de spermatogônias secundárias; o estádio 2 é composto por espermatogônias primárias e secundárias e cistos de espermatócitos; estádio 3 é caracterizado por espermatogônias primárias, secundárias, cistos de espermatócitos e de espermátides jovens ou recém-formadas; estádio 4 com túbulos seminíferos caracterizados pela presença de espermatogônias primárias e secundárias, espermatócitos e por cistos de espermátides jovens e tardias; estádio 5 apresenta todas as células anteriores e é marcado pelo surgimento de espermatozóides no lúmen tubular; estádio 6 tem como características a diminuição dos cistos de células germinativas e considerável aumento do número de espermatozóides no lúmen tubular; os túbulos seminíferos no estádio 7 contêm poucos cistos de células germinativas e se inicia o esvaziamento da massa de espermatozóides do lúmen tubular; estádio 8 é o último do CES e é caracterizado pela aparente desorganização dos cistos remanescentes de células germinativas no túbulo seminífero.

Age determination of granite from Himalaya

The Gangdese belt, Tibet, records the opening and closure of the Neo-Tethyan ocean and the resultant collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates. Mesozoic magmatic rocks generated through subduction of the Tethyan oceanic slab constitute the main component of the Gangdese belt, and play a crucial role in understanding the formation and evolution of the Neo-Tethyan tectonic realm. U-Pb and Lu-Hf isotopic data for tonalite and granodiorite from the Xietongmen-Nymo segment of the Gangdese belt indicate a significant pulse of Jurassic magmatism from 184 Ma to 168 Ma. The magmatic rocks belong to metaluminous medium-K calc-alkaline series, characterized by regular variation in major element compositions with SiO2 of 61.35%-73.59 wt%, low to moderate MgO (0.31%-2.59%) with Mg# of 37-45. These magmatic rocks are also characterized by LREE enrichment with concave upward trend in MREE on the chondrite-normalized REE patterns, and also LILE enrichment and depletion in Nb, Ta and Ti in the primitive mantle normalized spidergrams. These rocks have high zircon ?Hf(t) values of + 10.94 to + 15.91 and young two-stage depleted mantle model ages (TDM2) of 192 Ma to 670 Ma. The low MgO contents and relatively depleted Hf isotope compositions, suggest that the granitoid rocks were derived from the partial melting of the juvenile basaltic lower crust with minor mantle materials injected. In combined with the published data, it is suggested that northward subduction of the Neo-Tethyan slab beneath the Lhasa terrane began by the Late-Triassic, which formed a major belt of arc-related magmatism.

Rice morphogenesis and plant architecture: Measurement, specification and the reconstruction of structural development by 3D architectural modelling

Background and Aims The morphogenesis and architecture of a rice plant, Oryza sativa, are critical factors in the yield equation, but they are not well studied because of the lack of appropriate tools for 3D measurement. The architecture of rice plants is characterized by a large number of tillers and leaves. The aims of this study were to specify rice plant architecture and to find appropriate functions to represent the 3D growth across all growth stages. Methods A japonica type rice, 'Namaga', was grown in pots under outdoor conditions. A 3D digitizer was used to measure the rice plant structure at intervals from the young seedling stage to maturity. The L-system formalism was applied to create '3D virtual rice' plants, incorporating models of phenological development and leaf emergence period as a function of temperature and photoperiod, which were used to determine the timing of tiller emergence. Key Results The relationships between the nodal positions and leaf lengths, leaf angles and tiller angles were analysed and used to determine growth functions for the models. The '3D virtual rice' reproduces the structural development of isolated plants and provides a good estimation of the fillering process, and of the accumulation of leaves. Conclusions The results indicated that the '3D virtual rice' has a possibility to demonstrate the differences in the structure and development between cultivars and under different environmental conditions. Future work, necessary to reflect both cultivar and environmental effects on the model performance, and to link with physiological models, is proposed in the discussion.

Reliability of moderate-intensity and vigorous physical activity stage of change measures for young adults

Background. The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability of stage of change (SOC) measures for moderate-intensity and vigorous physical activity in two separate samples of young adults. Staging measures have focused on vigorous exercise, but current public health guidelines emphasize moderate-intensity activity. Method. For college students in the USA (n = 105) and in Australia (n = 123), SOC was assessed separately on two occasions for moderate-intensity activity and for vigorous activity. Test-retest repeatability was determined, using Cohen's kappa coefficient. Results. In both samples, the reliability scores for the moderate-intensity physical activity staging measure were lower than the scores for the vigorous exercise staging measure. Weighted kappa values for the moderate-intensity staging measure were in the fair to good range for both studies (0.50 and 0.45); for the vigorous staging measure kappa values were excellent and fair to good (0.76 and 0.72). Conclusions. There is a need to standardize and improve methods for staging moderate-intensity activity, given that such measures are used in public health interventions targeting HEPA (health-enhancing physical activity). (C) 2003 American Health Foundation and Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.