Modelling web search behaviour : a user’s cognitive style perspective [Unpublished]

Many researchers have investigated and modelled aspects of Web searching. A number of studies have explored the relationships between individual differences and Web searching. However, limited studies have explored the role of users’ cognitive styles in determining Web searching behaviour. Current models of Web searching have limited consideration of users’ cognitive styles. The impact of users’ cognitive style on Web searching and their relationships are little understood or represented. Individuals differ in their information processing approaches and the way they represent information, thus affecting their performance. To create better models of Web searching we need to understand more about user’s cognitive style and their Web search behaviour, and the relationship between them. More rigorous research is needed in using more complex and meaningful measures of relevance; across a range of different types of search tasks and different populations of Internet users. The project further explores the relationships between the users’ cognitive style and their Web searching. The project will develop a model depicting the relationships between a user’s cognitive style and their Web searching. The related literature, aims and objectives and research design are discussed.

Towards modelling web search behaviour : integrating users’ cognitive styles

With the rapid growth of information on the Web, the study of information searching has let to an increased interest. Information behaviour (IB) researchers and information systems (IS) developers are continuously exploring user - Web search interactions to understand and to help users to provide assistance with their information searching. In attempting to develop models of IB, several studies have identified various factors that govern user's information searching and information retrieval (IR), such as age, gender, prior knowledge and task complexity. However, how users' contextual factors, such as cognitive styles, affect Web search interactions has not been clearly explained by the current models of Web Searching and IR. This study explores the influence of users' cognitive styles on their Web search behaviour. The main goal of the study is to enhance Web search models with a better understanding of how these cognitive styles affect Web searching. Modelling Web search behaviour with a greater understanding of user's cognitive styles can help information science researchers and IS designers to bridge the semantic gap between the user and the IS. To achieve the aims of the study, a user study with 50 participants was conducted. The study adopted a mixed method approach incorporating several data collection strategies to gather a range of qualitative and quantitative data. The study utilised pre-search and post-search questionnaires to collect the participants' demographic information and their level of satisfaction about the search interactions. Riding's (1991) Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA) test was used to assess the participants' cognitive styles. Participants completed three predesigned search tasks and the whole user - web search interactions, including thinkaloud, were captured using a monitoring program. Data analysis involved several qualitative and quantitative techniques: the quantitative data gave raise to detailed findings about users' Web searching and cognitive styles, the qualitative data enriched the findings with illustrative examples. The study results provide valuable insights into Web searching behaviour among different cognitive style users. The findings of the study extend our understanding of Web search behaviour and how users search information on the Web. Three key study findings emerged: • Users' Web search behaviour was demonstrated through information searching strategies, Web navigation styles, query reformulation behaviour and information processing approaches while performing Web searches. The manner in which these Web search patterns were demonstrated varied among the users with different cognitive style groups. • Users' cognitive styles influenced their information searching strategies, query reformulation behaviour, Web navigational styles and information processing approaches. Users with particular cognitive styles followed certain Web search patterns. • Fundamental relationships were evident between users' cognitive styles and their Web search behaviours; and these relationships can be illustrated through modelling Web search behaviour. Two models that depict the associations between Web search interactions, user characteristics and users' cognitive styles were developed. These models provide a greater understanding of Web search behaviour from the user perspective, particularly how users' cognitive styles influence their Web search behaviour. The significance of this research is twofold: it will provide insights for information science researchers, information system designers, academics, educators, trainers and librarians who want to better understand how users with different cognitive styles perform information searching on the Web; at the same time, it will provide assistance and support to the users. The major outcomes of this study are 1) a comprehensive analysis of how users search the Web; 2) extensive discussion on the implications of the models developed in this study for future work; and 3) a theoretical framework to bridge high-level search models and cognitive models.

Modeling web search : preliminary results

This paper reports preliminary results from a study modeling the interplay between multitasking, cognitive coordination, and cognitive shifts during Web search. Study participants conducted three Web searches on personal information problems. Data collection techniques included pre- and post-search questionnaires; think-aloud protocols, Web search logs, observation, and post-search interviews. Key findings include: (1) users Web searches included multitasking, cognitive shifting and cognitive coordination processes, (2) cognitive coordination is the hinge linking multitasking and cognitive shifting that enables Web search construction, (3) cognitive shift levels determine the process of cognitive coordination, and (4) cognitive coordination is interplay of task, mechanism and strategy levels that underpin multitasking and task switching. An initial model depicts the interplay between multitasking, cognitive coordination, and cognitive shifts during Web search. Implications of the findings and further research are also discussed.

Consumer search of the web: An exploratory analysis of antecedents of web search satisfaction

This article explores consumer Web-search satisfaction. It commences with a brief overview of the concepts consumer information search and consumer satisfaction. Consumer Web adoption issues are then briefly discussed and the importance of consumer search satisfaction is highlighted in relation to the adoption of the Web as an additional source of consumer information. Research hypotheses are developed and the methodology of a large scale consumer experiment to record consumer Web search behaviour is described. The hypotheses are tested and the data explored in relation to post-Web-search satisfaction. The results suggest that consumer post-Web-search satisfaction judgments may be derived from subconscious judgments of Web search efficiency, an empirical calculation of which is problematic in unlimited information environments such as the Web. The results are discussed and a future research agenda is briefly outlined.

Human–computer interaction : the impact of users’ cognitive styles on query reformulation behaviour during web searching

This paper discusses users’ query reformulation behaviour while searching information on the Web. Query reformulations have emerged as an important component of Web search behaviour and human-computer interaction (HCI) because a user’s success of information retrieval (IR) depends on how he or she formulates queries. There are various factors, such as cognitive styles, that influence users’ query reformulation behaviour. Understanding how users with different cognitive styles formulate their queries while performing Web searches can help HCI researchers and information systems (IS) developers to provide assistance to the users. This paper aims to examine the effects of users’ cognitive styles on their query reformation behaviour. To achieve the goal of the study, a user study was conducted in which a total of 3613 search terms and 872 search queries were submitted by 50 users who engaged in 150 scenario-based search tasks. Riding’s (1991) Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA) test was used to assess users’ cognitive style as wholist or analytic, and verbaliser or imager. The study findings show that users’ query reformulation behaviour is affected by their cognitive styles. The results reveal that analytic users tended to prefer Add queries while all other users preferred New queries. A significant difference was found among wholists and analytics in the manner they performed Remove query reformulations. Future HCI researchers and IS developers can utilize the study results to develop interactive and user-cantered search model, and to provide context-based query suggestions for users.

Modeling users’ web search behavior and their cognitive styles

Previous studies have shown that users’ cognitive styles play an important role during Web searching. However, only limited studies have showed the relationship between cognitive styles and Web search behavior. Most importantly, it is not clear which components of Web search behavior are influenced by cognitive styles. This paper examines the relationships between users’ cognitive styles and their Web searching and develops a model that portrays the relationship. The study uses qualitative and quantitative analyses to inform the study results based on data gathered from 50 participants. A questionnaire was utilised to collect participants’ demographic information, and Riding’s (1991) Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA) test to assess their cognitive styles. Results show that users’ cognitive styles influenced their information searching strategies, query reformulation behaviour, Web navigational styles and information processing approaches. The user model developed in this study depicts the fundamental relationships between users’ Web search behavior and their cognitive styles. Modeling Web search behavior with a greater understanding of user’s cognitive styles can help information science researchers and information systems designers to bridge the semantic gap between the user and the systems. Implications of the research for theory and practice, and future work are discussed.

Users’ perception of using web search engines and their impact on the perceived intention to reuse the systems

In today’s world of information-driven society, many studies are exploring usefulness and ease of use of the technology. The research into personalizing next-generation user interface is also ever increasing. A better understanding of factors that influence users’ perception of web search engine performance would contribute in achieving this. This study measures and examines how users’ perceived level of prior knowledge and experience influence their perceived level of satisfaction of using the web search engines, and how their perceived level of satisfaction affects their perceived intention to reuse the system. 50 participants from an Australian university participated in the current study, where they performed three search tasks and completed survey questionnaires. A research model was constructed to test the proposed hypotheses. Correlation and regression analyses results indicated a significant correlation between (1) users’ prior level of experience and their perceived level of satisfaction in using the web search engines, and (2) their perceived level of satisfaction in using the systems and their perceived intention to reuse the systems. A theoretical model is proposed to illustrate the causal relationships. The implications and limitations of the study are also discussed.

Time series analysis of a Web search engine transaction log

In this paper, we use time series analysis to evaluate predictive scenarios using search engine transactional logs. Our goal is to develop models for the analysis of searchers’ behaviors over time and investigate if time series analysis is a valid method for predicting relationships between searcher actions. Time series analysis is a method often used to understand the underlying characteristics of temporal data in order to make forecasts. In this study, we used a Web search engine transactional log and time series analysis to investigate users’ actions. We conducted our analysis in two phases. In the initial phase, we employed a basic analysis and found that 10% of searchers clicked on sponsored links. However, from 22:00 to 24:00, searchers almost exclusively clicked on the organic links, with almost no clicks on sponsored links. In the second and more extensive phase, we used a one-step prediction time series analysis method along with a transfer function method. The period rarely affects navigational and transactional queries, while rates for transactional queries vary during different periods. Our results show that the average length of a searcher session is approximately 2.9 interactions and that this average is consistent across time periods. Most importantly, our findings shows that searchers who submit the shortest queries (i.e., in number of terms) click on highest ranked results. We discuss implications, including predictive value, and future research.

Exploring young children's web searching and technoliteracy

Purpose – This paper aims to report findings from an exploratory study investigating the web interactions and technoliteracy of children in the early childhood years. Previous research has studied aspects of older children’s technoliteracy and web searching; however, few studies have analyzed web search data from children younger than six years of age. Design/methodology/approach – The study explored the Google web searching and technoliteracy of young children who are enrolled in a “preparatory classroom” or kindergarten (the year before young children begin compulsory schooling in Queensland, Australia). Young children were video- and audio-taped while conducting Google web searches in the classroom. The data were qualitatively analysed to understand the young children’s web search behaviour. Findings – The findings show that young children engage in complex web searches, including keyword searching and browsing, query formulation and reformulation, relevance judgments, successive searches, information multitasking and collaborative behaviours. The study results provide significant initial insights into young children’s web searching and technoliteracy. Practical implications – The use of web search engines by young children is an important research area with implications for educators and web technologies developers. Originality/value – This is the first study of young children’s interaction with a web search engine.

Multitasking, cognitive coordination and cognitive shifts during web searching

As Web searching becomes more prolific for information access worldwide, we need to better understand users’ Web searching behaviour and develop better models of their interaction with Web search systems. Web search modelling is a significant and important area of Web research. Searching on the Web is an integral element of information behaviour and human–computer interaction. Web searching includes multitasking processes, the allocation of cognitive resources among several tasks, and shifts in cognitive, problem and knowledge states. In addition to multitasking, cognitive coordination and cognitive shifts are also important, but are under-explored aspects of Web searching. During the Web searching process, beyond physical actions, users experience various cognitive activities. Interactive Web searching involves many users’ cognitive shifts at different information behaviour levels. Cognitive coordination allows users to trade off the dependences among multiple information tasks and the resources available. Much research has been conducted into Web searching. However, few studies have modelled the nature of and relationship between multitasking, cognitive coordination and cognitive shifts in the Web search context. Modelling how Web users interact with Web search systems is vital for the development of more effective Web IR systems. This study aims to model the relationship between multitasking, cognitive coordination and cognitive shifts during Web searching. A preliminary theoretical model is presented based on previous studies. The research is designed to validate the preliminary model. Forty-two study participants were involved in the empirical study. A combination of data collection instruments, including pre- and post-questionnaires, think-aloud protocols, search logs, observations and interviews were employed to obtain users’ comprehensive data during Web search interactions. Based on the grounded theory approach, qualitative analysis methods including content analysis and verbal protocol analysis were used to analyse the data. The findings were inferred through an analysis of questionnaires, a transcription of think-aloud protocols, the Web search logs, and notes on observations and interviews. Five key findings emerged. (1) Multitasking during Web searching was demonstrated as a two-dimensional behaviour. The first dimension was represented as multiple information problems searching by task switching. Users’ Web searching behaviour was a process of multiple tasks switching, that is, from searching on one information problem to searching another. The second dimension of multitasking behaviour was represented as an information problem searching within multiple Web search sessions. Users usually conducted Web searching on a complex information problem by submitting multiple queries, using several Web search systems and opening multiple windows/tabs. (2) Cognitive shifts were the brain’s internal response to external stimuli. Cognitive shifts were found as an essential element of searching interactions and users’ Web searching behaviour. The study revealed two kinds of cognitive shifts. The first kind, the holistic shift, included users’ perception on the information problem and overall information evaluation before and after Web searching. The second kind, the state shift, reflected users’ changes in focus between the different cognitive states during the course of Web searching. Cognitive states included users’ focus on the states of topic, strategy, evaluation, view and overview. (3) Three levels of cognitive coordination behaviour were identified: the information task coordination level, the coordination mechanism level, and the strategy coordination level. The three levels of cognitive coordination behaviour interplayed to support multiple information tasks switching. (4) An important relationship existed between multitasking, cognitive coordination and cognitive shifts during Web searching. Cognitive coordination as a management mechanism bound together other cognitive processes, including multitasking and cognitive shifts, in order to move through users’ Web searching process. (5) Web search interaction was shown to be a multitasking process which included information problems ordering, task switching and task and mental coordinating; also, at a deeper level, cognitive shifts took place. Cognitive coordination was the hinge behaviour linking multitasking and cognitive shifts. Without cognitive coordination, neither multitasking Web searching behaviour nor the complicated mental process of cognitive shifting could occur. The preliminary model was revisited with these empirical findings. A revised theoretical model (MCC Model) was built to illustrate the relationship between multitasking, cognitive coordination and cognitive shifts during Web searching. Implications and limitations of the study are also discussed, along with future research work.