Habitat use and population dynamics of brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Scandinavia

Large carnivore populations are currently recovering from past extirpation efforts and expanding back into their original habitats. At the same time human activities have resulted in very few wilderness areas left with suitable habitats and size large enough to maintain populations of large carnivores without human contact. Consequently the long-term future of large carnivores depends on their successful integration into landscapes where humans live. Thus, understanding their behaviour and interaction with surrounding habitats is of utmost importance in the development of management strategies for large carnivores. This applies also to brown bears (Ursus arctos) that were almost exterminated from Scandinavia and Finland at the turn of the century, but are now expanding their range with the current population estimates being approximately 2600 bears in Scandinavia and 840 in Finland. This thesis focuses on the large-scale habitat use and population dynamics of brown bears in Scandinavia with the objective to develop modelling approaches that support the management of bear populations. Habitat analysis shows that bear home ranges occur mainly in forested areas with a low level of human influence relative to surrounding areas. Habitat modelling based on these findings allows identification and quantification of the potentially suitable areas for bears in Scandinavia. Additionally, this thesis presents novel improvements to home range estimation that enable realistic estimates of the effective area required for the bears to establish a home range. This is achieved through fitting to the radio-tracking data to establish the amount of temporal autocorrelation and the proportion of time spent in different habitat types. Together these form a basis for the landscape-level management of the expanding population. Successful management of bears requires also assessment of the consequences of harvest on the population viability. An individual-based simulation model, accounting for the sexually selected infanticide, was used to investigate the possibility of increasing the harvest using different hunting strategies, such as trophy harvest of males. The results indicated that the population can sustain twice the current harvest rate. However, harvest should be changed gradually while carefully monitoring the population growth as some effects of increased harvest may manifest themselves only after a time-delay. The results and methodological improvements in this thesis can be applied to the Finnish bear population and to other large carnivores. They provide grounds for the further development of spatially-realistic management-oriented models of brow bear dynamics that can make projections of the future distribution of bears while accounting for the development of human activities.

Using non-invasive techniques to examine black bear (Ursus americanus) abundance in the North Cascades Ecosystem, Washington State

Thesis (Master's)--University of Washington, 2013

Aporte nutricional del ecosistema de Maderas del Carmen, Coahuila, para el oso negro (Ursus americanus eremicus)

Tesis (Maestro en Ciencias Forestales) U.A.N.L.

Movements, activity patterns and home range of a female brown bear (Ursus arctos, L.) in the Rodopi Mountain Range, Greece

Movements and activity patterns of an adult radio-tagged female brown bear accompanied by her cubs were documented for the first time in Rodopi area (NE Greece) from August 2000 to July 2002. Average daily movements were 2.45 +/- 2.26 SD km, (range 0.15-8.5 km). The longest daily range could be related to human disturbance (hunting activity). The longest seasonal distance (211 km), during Summer 2001 coincided with the dissolution of the family. With cubs, the female was more active during daytime (73 % of all radio-readings) than when solitary (28 %). The female switched to a more crepuscular behaviour, after separation from the yearling (July 2001). According to pooled data from 924 activity - recording sessions, during the whole monitoring period, the female was almost twice as active during day time while rearing cubs (51 % active) than when solitary (23 %). The autumn and early winter home range size of the family was larger (280 km(2)) than after the separation from the cubs (59 km(2)). During the family group phase, home range size varied from 258 km(2) in autumn to 40 km(2) in winter (average denning period lasted 107 days : December 2000-March 2001). The bear hibernated in the Bulgarian part of the Rodopi Range during winters of 2001 and 2002.

Rabies in Experimentally Infected Bears, Ursus spp., with Epizootiologic Notes

Ten black bears, Ursus americanus Pallas, and three brown bears, U. arctos Linnaeus, were inoculated with rabies virus from naturally infected foxes in Alaska. The bears were more resistant than canine species, requiring at least 1,000 MLD50 of virus for infection. Low titres or negative results were obtained in salivary glands titrated in mice. Clinical course of the disease, post mortem findings, and microscopic lesions are described. Microscopic lesions were more· severe in brown bears, in which the inflammatory response was distinguished by the presence of numerous eosinophils in the perivascular infiltrate and among cells diffusely infiltrating the parenchyma. In both species, inclusion bodies were found only in the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. Rabies is discounted as a factor in unprovoked attacks by bears on man at high latitudes. The epizootiology of rabies in a region where bears are numerous is discussed, with the conclusion that rabid foxes usually do not excrete sufficient quantities of virus in the saliva to infect bears. German title: Tollwut bei experimentell infizierten Bären, Ursus spp., mit epizootiologischen Anmerkungen German abtract: Zehn Schwarzbären, Ursus americanus Pallas, und drei Braunbären, U. arctos Linnaeus, wurden mit einem von Füchsen in Alaska isolierten Feldstamm des Tollwutvirus infiziert. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse lassen erkennen, daß Bären eine größere Resistenz gegenüber Tollwutinfektion aufweisen als hundeartige Karnivoren, und zwar konnten sie nicht mit weniger als 1000 MLD50 des Tollwutvirus infiziert werden. Das Virus war selten nachweisbar in den Speicheldrüsen der tollwuterkrankten Bären. Klinik und Pathologie der Tollwut bei Bären wurden kurz beschrieben. Die im Gehirn vorkommenden entzündlichen Veränderungen waren bei Braunbären besonders schwer und unterschieden sich durch die Häufigkeit der eosinophilen Leukozyten in den perivasculären und Gewebs-Infiltraten. Bei beiden Arten wurden Einschlußkörperchen nur in den Purkinje-Zellen beobachtet. Die Epizootiologie der Tollwut auf der Alaska-Halbinsel, wo Bären häufig vorkommen, wurde besprochen. Die Ergebnisse deuten an, daß Füchse wenig Virus mit dem Speichel ausscheiden, und selten soviel, daß es für die Infektion von Bären ausreicht. French title: La rage expérimentale chez les ours, Ursus spp., avec observations épizootiologiques French abstract: Dix ours noirs, Ursus americanus Pallas, et trois ours bruns, U. arctos Linnaeus, ont été inoculés avec de virus rabique provenant des renards infectés naturellement dans l'Alaska. Les ours Ont été plus résistants au virus que des espèces canines, et pour produire l'infection chez les ours, au moins 1000 MLD50 ont été requis. La titration des glandes salivaires chez des souris a données des titres peu éléves ou des résultats négatifs. La course clinique de la maladie, les observations des autopsies, et les lésions microscopiques sont decrites. Les lésions microscopiques les plus sévères ont été observées chez les ours bruns, dans lesquels la réponse inflammatoire a été distinguée par la présence de nombreux éosinophiles dans l'infiltration périvasculaire et parmi les cellules infiltrées diffusément dans Ie parenchyme. Chez les deux espèces des ours, des corps d'inclusion ont été trouvés seulement dans les cellules de Purkinje du cervelet. On a discuté l'épizootiologie de la rage dans une région où des ours sont nombreux, avec la conclusion qu'il y a dans la salive des renards rabiques une quantité de virus insuffisante pour infecter les ours. é ó í á ú Spanish title: Rabia en osos, Ursus spp., infectados experimentalmente, con anotaciones epizootológicas Spanish abstract: Diez osos negros, Ursus americanus Pallas, y tres osos pardos, U. arctos Linea, se infectaron con una estirpe campal de virus rábico aislada de zorros en Alasca. Los resultados de la experiencia permiten reconocer que los osos presentan una resistencia mayor frente a la infección rábica que los carnívoros cánidos, pues no se pudieron infectar con menos de 1.000 DML50 de virus rábico. El virus era muy raras veces identificable en las glándulas salivales de los osos enfermos de rabia. Se describen sucintamente la clínica y patología de la rabia en los osos. Las modificaciones inflamatorias en el cerebro eran muy graves en el oso pardo y se distinguían por la frecuencia de los leucocitos eosinófilos en los infiltrados perivasculares e hísticos. En ambas especies solo se hallaron corpúsculos de inclusión en las células de Purkinje. Se discute la epizootología de la rabia en la península de Alasca, donde es frecuente Ia presencia de osos. Los resultados señalan que los zorros eliminan poco virus con la saliva y casi nunca en cantidad tal que fuese suficiente para infectar los osos.

Concentrations of PBDE and BDE congeners in adipose tissue of East Greenland polar bears (Ursus maritimus)

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were analysed in adipose tissue from 92 East Greenland polar bears (Ursus maritimus) sampled during 1999-2001. Mean SumPBDE concentrations were 70 ng/g lipid weight (lw) (range: 22-192 ng/g lw) and showed no relationship with age or sex. Of the 32 analysed PBDE congeners; BDE47, BDE153, BDE99 and BDE100 dominated, and comprised 99.6% of the SumPBDE concentration. The SumPBDE concentration had a highly significant correlation with SumPCB, SumCHL, dieldrin, HCB and SumHCH concentrations. We found a seasonal pattern of median SumPBDE concentration with 1.2 to 1.8 times higher concentrations in March to July than the rest of the year. The seasonal variation also provides a clue to the seasonal exposure, bio-availability, toxic exposure and degradation. We suggest that future geographical PBDE data comparisons may not need corrections for sex or age, but such data sets should be corrected for seasonal variability, using the presented correctional trigonometric regression.

(Table 1) Cortisol concentration in hair of East Greenland polar bears (Ursus maritimus)

To demonstrate the ability to assess long-term hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis activity in polar bears (Ursus maritimus), a pilot study was conducted in which cortisol concentration was analyzed in hair from 7 female (3-19 years) and 10 male (6-19 years) East Greenland polar bears sampled in 1994-2006. The hair was chosen as matrix as it is non-invasive, seasonally harmonized, and has been validated as an index of long-term changes in cortisol levels. The samples were categorized according to contamination: eight were clean (2 females, 6 males), 5 had been contaminated with bear blood (2 F, 3 M), and 4 with bear fat (3 F, 1 M). There was no significant difference in cortisol concentration between the three categories after external contamination was removed. However, contaminated hair samples should be cleaned before cortisol determination. Average hair cortisol concentration was 8.90 pg/mg (range: 5.5 to 16.4 pg/mg). There was no significant correlation between cortisol concentration and age (p = 0.81) or sampling year (p = 0.11). However, females had higher mean cortisol concentration than males (females mean: 11.0 pg/mg, males: 7.3 pg/mg; p = 0.01). The study showed that polar bear hair contains measurable amounts of cortisol and that cortisol in hair may be used in studies of long-term stress in polar bears.

(Table 1) Lipid content and organohalogen contaminant concentration in captive sledge dogs (Canis familiaris) and wild female polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from Greenland

The limited knowledge and/or the inability to control physiological condition parameters that influence the fate of organohalogen contaminants (OHCs) has been the foremost confounding aspect in monitoring programs and health risk assessments of wild top predators in the Arctic such as the polar bear (Ursus maritimus). In the present comparative study, we used a potential surrogate Canoidea species for the East Greenland polar bear, the captive sledge dog (Canis familiaris), to investigate some factors that may influence the bioaccumulation and biotransformation of major chlorinated and brominated OHCs in adipose tissue and blood (plasma) of control (fed commercial pork fat) and exposed (fed West Greenland minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) blubber) adult female sledge dogs. Furthermore, we compared the patterns and concentrations of OHCs and their known or suggested hydroxylated (OH) metabolites (e.g., OH-PCBs) in sledge dogs with those in adipose tissue and blood (plasma) of East Greenland adult female polar bears, and blubber of their main prey species, the ringed seal (Pusa hispida). The two-year feeding regime conducted with sledge dogs led to marked differences in overall adipose tissue (and plasma) OHC residue accumulation between the control and exposed groups. Characteristic prey-to-predator OHC bioaccumulation dynamics for major PCB and PBDE congeners (patterns and concentrations) and biotransformation capacity with respect to PCB metabolite formation and OH-PCB retention distinguished, to some extent, captive sledge dogs and wild polar bears. Based on the present findings, we conclude that the use of surrogate species in toxicological investigations for species in the Canoidea family should be done with great caution, although they remain essential in the context of contaminants research with sensitive arctic top carnivore species such as the polar bear.

(Table 1) Circulating levels of TT3 and TT4, and age, length, girth, and estimated body mass in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from East Greenland 1999-2001

We investigated the multivariate relationships between adipose tissue residue levels of 48 individual organohalogen contaminants (OHCs) and circulating thyroid hormone (TH) levels in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from East Greenland (1999-2001, n = 62), using projection to latent structure (PLS) regression for four groupings of polar bears; subadults (SubA), adult females with cubs (AdF_N), adult females without cubs (AdF_S) and adult males (AdM). In the resulting significant PLS models for SubA, AdF_N and AdF_S, some OHCs were especially important in explaining variations in circulating TH levels: polybrominated diphenylether (PBDE)-99, PBDE-100, PBDE-153, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)-52, PCB-118, cis-nonachlor, trans-nonachlor, trichlorobenzene (TCB) and pentachlorobenzene (QCB), and both negative and positive relationships with THs were found. In addition, the models revealed that DDTs had a positive influence on total 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (TT3) in AdF_S, and that a group of 17 higher chlorinated ortho-PCBs had a positive influence on total 3,5,3',5'-tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine, TT4) in AdF_N. TH levels in AdM seemed less influenced by OHCs because of non-significant PLS models. TH levels were also influenced by biological factors such as age, sex, body size, lipid content of adipose tissue and sampling date. When controlling for biological variables, the major relationships from the PLS models for SubA, AdF_N and AdF_S were found significant in partial correlations. The most important OHCs that influenced TH levels in the significant PLS models may potentially act through similar mechanisms on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis, suggesting that both combined effects by dose and response addition and perhaps synergistic potentiation may be a possibility in these polar bears. Statistical associations are not evidence per se of biological cause-effect relationships. Still, the results of the present study indicate that OHCs may affect circulating TH levels in East Greenland polar bears, adding to the "weight of evidence" suggesting that OHCs might interfere with thyroid homeostasis in polar bears.