To regulate the production and ginning of cotton : hearings before the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, United States Senate, Seventy-third Congress, second session, on S. 1974, a bill to place the cotton industry on a sound basis, and to prevent unfair competition and practices in putting cotton into the channels of interstate and foreign commerce. January 15, 16, 17, and 20, 1934.

Ellison D. Smith, chairman; John H. Bankhead, presiding, Jan. 16, 1934.

The law of unfair competition and trade-marks.

Includes Federal legislation.

Tax concessions for charities : competitive neutrality, the tax base and "public goods" choice

It is argued that concerns arise about the integrity and fairness of the taxation regime where charitable organizations, which avail themselves of the tax exemption status while undertaking commercial activities, compete directly with the for-profit sector. The appropriateness of the tax concessions granted to charitable organizations is considered in respect of income derived from commercial activities. It is principally argued that the traditional line of reasoning for imposing limitations on tax concessions focuses on an incorrect underlying inquiry. Traditionally, it is argued that limitations should be imposed because of unfair competition, lack of competitive neutrality, or an arbitrary decision relating to a lack of deserving. However, it is argued that a more appropriate question from which to base any limitations is one which considers the value attached to the integrity of the taxation regime as a whole, and the tax base specifically compared to the public good of charities. When the correct underlying question is asked, sound taxation policy ensues, as a less arbitrary approach may be adopted to limit the scope of tax concessions available to charitable organizations.

The new normativity : the innovation imperative

At a quite fundamental level, the very way in which Public Service Broadcasting (PSB) may envisage its future usually captured in the semantic shift from PSB to Public Service Media (PSM) is at stake when considering the recent history of public value discourse and the public value test. The core Reithian PSB idea assumed that public value would be created through the application of core principles of universality of availability and appeal, provision for minorities, education of the public, distance from vested interests, quality programming standards, program maker independence, and fostering of national culture and the public sphere. On the other hand, the philosophical import of the public value test is that potentially any excursion into the provision of new media services needs to be justified ex ante. In this era of New Public Management, greater transparency and accountability, and the proposition that resources for public value deliverables be contestable and not sequestered in public sector institutions, what might be the new Archimedean point around which a contemporised normativity for PSM be built? This paper will argue for the innovation imperative as an organising principle for contemporary PSM. This may appear counterintuitive, as it is precisely PSB’s predilection for innovating in new media services (in online, mobile, and social media) that has produced the constraining apparatus of the ex ante/public value/Drei-Stufen-Test in Europe, based on principles of competitive neutrality and transparency in the application of public funds for defined and limited public benefit. However, I argue that a commitment to innovation can define as complementary to, rather than as competitive ‘crowding out’, the new products and services that PSM can, and should, be delivering into a post-scarcity, superabundant all-media marketplace. The evidence presented in this paper for this argument is derived mostly from analysis of PSM in the Australian media ecology. While no PSB outside Europe is subject to a formal public value test, the crowding out arguments are certainly run in Australia, particularly by powerful commercial interests for whom free news is a threat to monetising quality news journalism. Take right wing opinion leader, herself a former ABC Board member, Judith Sloan: ‘… the recent expansive nature of the ABC – all those television stations, radio stations and online offerings – is actually squeezing activity that would otherwise be undertaken by the private sector. From partly correcting market failure, the ABC is now causing it. We are now dealing with a case of unfair competition and wasted taxpayer funds’ (The Drum, 1 August http://www.abc.net.au/unleashed/2818220.html). But I argue that the crowding out argument is difficult to sustain in Australia because of the PSB’s non-dominant position and the fact that much of innovation generated by the two PSBs, the ABC and the SBS, has not been imitated by or competed for by the commercials. The paper will bring cases forward, such as SBS’ Go Back to Where you Came From (2011) as an example of product innovation, and a case study of process and organisational innovation which also has resulted in specific product and service innovation – the ABC’s Innovation Unit. In summary, at least some of the old Reithian dicta, along with spectrum scarcity and market failure arguments, have faded or are fading. Contemporary PSM need to justify their role in the system, and to society, in terms of innovation.

Breakfast at Tiffany's': eBay Inc., trade mark law, and counterfeiting

In an exploration of intellectual property and fashion, this article examines the question of the intermediary liability of online auction-houses for counterfeiting. In the United States, the illustrious jewellery store, Tiffany & Co, brought a legal action against eBay Inc, alleging direct trademark infringement, contributory trademark infringement, false advertising, unfair competition and trademark dilution. The luxury store depicted the online auction-house as a pirate bazaar, a flea-market and a haven for counterfeiting. During epic litigation, eBay Inc successfully defended itself against these allegations in a United States District Court and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. Tiffany & Co made a desperate, unsuccessful effort to appeal the matter to the Supreme Court of the United States. The matter featured a number of interventions from amicus curiae — Tiffany was supported by Coty, the Fashion Designer's Guild, and the International Anticounterfeiting Coalition, while eBay was defended by publicly-spirited civil society groups such as Electronic Frontier Foundation, Public Citizen, and Public Knowledge as well as Yahoo!, Google Inc, Amazon.com, and associations representing telecommunications carriers and internet service providers. The litigation in the United States can be counterpointed with the fusillade of legal action against eBay in the European Union. In contrast to Tiffany & Co, Louis Vuitton triumphed over eBay in the French courts — claiming its victory as vindication of the need to protect the commercial interests and cultural heritage of France. However, eBay has fared somewhat better in a dispute with L’Oréal in Great Britain and the European Court of Justice. It is argued that, in a time of flux and uncertainty, Australia should follow the position of the United States courts in Tiffany & Co v eBay Inc. The final part examines the ramifications of this litigation over online auction-houses for trade mark law reform and consumer rights; parallel disputes over intermediary liability and safe harbours in the field of copyright law and the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement 2010. The conclusion calls for a revision of trade mark law, animated by a respect for consumers’ rights and interests in the electronic marketplace.

A proteção jurídica dos dados clínicos de testes em medicamentos para humanos

A discussão jurídica versa acerca da proteção ou não dos dados clínicos e informações não divulgadas Data Package, obtidos através de pesquisas clinicas, a partir do desenvolvimento de um novo medicamento. È importante realizar-se uma investigação prévia para descobrir se o novo medicamento a ser comercializado, possui efeitos benéficos ou adversos, que possam afetar os seres humanos, garantindo assim a eficácia e a segurança de sua utilização. O dossiê contendo os dados clínicos é submetido à Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária que, no uso de sua atribuição específica, e em função da avaliação do cumprimento de caráter jurídico-administrativo e técnico-científico relacionado com a eficácia, segurança e qualidade do medicamento conforme a Lei 6360/76 e o Decreto 79.094/77 determina o registro sanitário. A tese defendida pelas sociedades farmacêuticas de pesquisa é a de que seria vedado à ANVISA deferir registros de medicamentos genéricos e similares de mesmo princípio ativo, com base nas pesquisas clinicas realizada, enquanto vigente o período de exclusividade, com fundamento no artigo 5, inciso XXIX da Constituição Federal, artigos 39.1, 39.2, 39.3 do Acordo sobre Aspectos dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual Acordo TRIPS, artigo 195, XIV da Lei n 9.279/96 (Lei da Propriedade Industrial), artigo 421, 884, 885 e 886 do CC, artigo 37, caput, da CF e artigo 2, da Lei 9.784/99 e aplicação analógica da Lei 10.603/2002. A ANVISA ao permitir aos fabricantes dos medicamentos genéricos e similares a utilização do pacote de dados clínicos, fornecido pelo titular do medicamento de referencia, estaria promovendo a concorrência desleal e parasitária, ao permitir que as versões genéricas e similares, ingressem no mercado, sob custos de produção e comerciais substancialmente menores, do que os praticadas pelos medicamentos de referencia. Este argumento tem fulcro na norma do artigo 39.3 do Acordo TRIPS firmado entre os membros da Organização Mundial do Comércio OMC, em 1994, no qual o Brasil é signatário, e que se comprometeram a adotar providências no sentido de manter em sigilo e protegidos contra o uso comercial desleal os dados clínicos relativos à pesquisa clínica, necessários à aprovação da comercialização de produtos farmacêuticos. A divulgação, exploração ou a utilização dos dados clínicos, sem a autorização do respectivo titular, o qual demandou recursos materiais e humanos consideráveis e desde que estas informações tenham sido apresentadas a entidades governamentais como condição para aprovação da comercialização de um medicamento, devem ser protegidas. Os Estados membros da OMC e subscritores do acordo internacional devem assegurar que os concorrentes não tenham acesso às informações recebidas pelo ente estatal, que não as explorarem ou delas possam aferir indevidamente tanto direta quanto indiretamente de vantagens que as beneficiem do conhecimento técnico-cientifico, investimentos e esforços realizados pelo titular daquela pesquisa clínica. Dentro deste cenário, faz-se necessário que o Estado produza um marco regulatório capaz de prover uma segurança jurídica, que permita as sociedades farmacêuticas disponibilizar elevado investimento, viabilizando a realização de pesquisa clinica e introdução de novos medicamentos.

Le secret bancaire et l'entraide internationale

Parmi les indicateurs de la mondialisation, le secret bancaire est au centre d'un débat animé en ce moment historique, caractérisé par la globalisation de l'économie, les exigences de sécurité croissantes, l'urgence de la lutte contre le blanchiment des capitaux provenant d’activités criminelles et l’internationalisation expansive des réseaux bancaires. La tendance vers le renforcement de la coopération internationale, met en discussion la forte sauvegarde du secret bancaire de plusieurs pays. La question dirimante est plutôt claire. Il s'agit, effectivement, de savoir jusqu'à quel point le secret, dans sa conception la plus inextensible et inflexible, devient par contre un instrument décisif pour contourner les règles communes,faire une concurrence déloyale sur les marchés et assurer des véritables crimes, par exemple de type terroriste. Pour faire évoluer les situations jugées problématiques, la démarche parallèle des trois organismes BÂLE, l’OCDE puis le GAFI est d’autant plus significative, qu’elle a été inspirée par les préoccupations exprimées au sein du G7 sur les dangers que présenteraient pour l’économie internationale certaines activités financières accomplies sur et à partir de ces territoires. L’ordre public justifie aussi la mise en place de mesures particulières en vue d’enrayer le blanchiment des capitaux provenant du trafic des stupéfiants. Selon les pays, des systèmes plus ou moins ingénieux tentent de concilier la nécessaire information des autorités publiques et le droit au secret bancaire, élément avancé de la protection de la vie privée dont le corollaire est, entre autres, l’article 7 et 8 de la Charte canadienne des droits et libertés et l’article 8 de la Convention européenne de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales du citoyen, et donc de l’atteinte à ces libertés. Nous le verrons, les prérogatives exorbitantes dont bénéficient l’État, l’administration ou certains tiers, par l’exercice d’un droit de communication et d’échange d’information, constituent une véritable atteinte au principe sacré de la vie privée et du droit à la confidentialité. Cette pénétration de l’État ou de l’administration au coeur des relations privilégiées entre la banque et son client trouve certainement une justification irréfutable lorsque la protection est celle de l’intérêt public, de la recherche d’une solution juridique et judiciaire. Mais cela crée inévitablement des pressions internes et des polémiques constantes,indépendamment de l’abus de droit que l’on peut malheureusement constater dans l’usage et l’exercice de certaines prérogatives.

Essai sur les importations parallèles : la recherche d'un équilibre entre liberté et protection dans l'Union européenne

Le phénomène du commerce parallèle repose sur un constat de base à la fois simple et évident: le niveau des prix d’un même produit « créé et fabriqué » par le même titulaire peut souvent varier de manière importante d’un pays à l’autre, en raison notamment des disparités dans le revenu moyen des consommateurs, des règlementations nationales entravant les échanges, ou encore du niveau de concurrence qui peut être affecté par des restrictions d’ordre privé, telles que des conventions de partage de marchés ou des contrats de distribution. Les commerçants que l’on appelle « importateurs parallèles » achèteront le produit là où il est le moins cher, qu’il provienne directement du titulaire ou non, en vue de le revendre là où ils pourront faire le meilleur profit. Dans ce contexte, des problèmes apparaîtront dans le pays d’importation dans la mesure où les commerçants parallèles vendront, bien évidemment, moins cher que les distributeurs désignés par le titulaire. Le titulaire en sa qualité de « créateur » de produits, est souvent titulaire de droits de propriété intellectuelle qu’il désirera, non sans une certaine légitimité, « monnayer », tentant ainsi de cloisonner les marchés en vue d’obtenir le prix le plus élevé qu’un consommateur serait prêt à payer pour un produit « x » sur un marché « y ». Cet essai a pour mérite de mettre en tension, d'une part, la liberté des échanges et de la concurrence qui favorisent, notamment, l’obtention des produits au meilleur prix pour les acheteurs et les consommateurs et, d’autre part, la nécessité de protéger les efforts de création dans l’industrie afin que celle-ci continue à investir dans la recherche et le développement de nouveaux produits.

Espionnage économique et droit: l’inutile création d’un bien informationnel

La question de la propriété de l’information est reformulée en tenant compte de la problématique de l’espionnage économique, pratique déloyale ayant pour objet prioritaire l’accès à l’information privée d’un concurrent. L’atteinte aux intérêts légitimes d’un concurrent résulte du seul transfert de connaissance et peut donc être théoriquement indépendante d’une éventuelle contrefaçon ou d’un acte de parasitisme. C’est dans la perspective de cet accès illégitime à la seule information d’un concurrent qu’est ici envisagée la propriété de l’information per se. À l’heure actuelle, l’existence d’une telle propriété de l’information n’est pas démontrée en droit, l’information n’étant qu’une « chose » et non un « bien ». Mais, en reconnaissant que l’information peut être volée indépendamment de tout support, le droit pénal semble admettre indirectement cette propriété. De même, une jurisprudence ancienne relative à la concurrence déloyale protège celui qui ne peut se prévaloir d’un droit privatif, ce qui implique une « réservation » juridique de l’information, forme de « quasi-propriété ». Cela tend à démontrer que la propriété de l’information est juridiquement concevable. Cependant, les débats doctrinaux se sont rarement orientés vers la question de la réparation, essentielle en matière d’espionnage économique. Dans cette perspective, la reconnaissance d’une propriété de l’information est en réalité très limitée compte tenu du préjudice pouvant résulter de la perte d’exclusivité de l’information, préjudice pouvant être bien supérieur à la valeur de l’information elle-même. Plutôt que de reconnaître un droit de propriété sur l’information, la solution serait peut-être d’accorder à l’entreprise un droit subjectif à la protection de ses informations confidentielles, droit protégeant civilement contre la seule appréhension illégitime de telles informations.

The Legal Implications of Internet Marketing : Exploiting the Digital Marketplace Within the Boundaries of the Law

Au cours des dernières années, le domaine de la consommation a grandement évolué. Les agents de marketing ont commencé à utiliser l’Internet pour influencer les consommateurs en employant des tactiques originales et imaginatives qui ont rendus possible l’atteinte d'un niveau de communication interpersonnelle qui avait précédemment été insondable. Leurs interactions avec les consommateurs, en utilisant la technologie moderne, se manifeste sous plusieurs formes différentes qui sont toutes accompagnés de leur propre assortiment de problèmes juridiques. D’abord, il n'est pas rare pour les agents de marketing d’utiliser des outils qui leur permettent de suivre les actions des consommateurs dans le monde virtuel ainsi que dans le monde physique. Les renseignements personnels recueillis d'une telle manière sont souvent utilisés à des fins de publicité comportementale en ligne – une utilisation qui ne respecte pas toujours les limites du droit à la vie privée. Il est également devenu assez commun pour les agents de marketing d’utiliser les médias sociaux afin de converser avec les consommateurs. Ces forums ont aussi servi à la commission d’actes anticoncurrentiels, ainsi qu’à la diffusion de publicités fausses et trompeuses – deux pratiques qui sont interdites tant par la loi sur la concurrence que la loi sur la protection des consommateurs. Enfin, les agents de marketing utilisent diverses tactiques afin de joindre les consommateurs plus efficacement en utilisant diverses tactiques qui les rendent plus visible dans les moteurs de recherche sur Internet, dont certaines sont considérés comme malhonnêtes et pourraient présenter des problèmes dans les domaines du droit de la concurrence et du droit des marques de commerce. Ce mémoire offre une description détaillée des outils utilisés à des fins de marketing sur Internet, ainsi que de la manière dont ils sont utilisés. Il illustre par ailleurs les problèmes juridiques qui peuvent survenir à la suite de leur utilisation et définit le cadre législatif régissant l’utilisation de ces outils par les agents de marketing, pour enfin démontrer que les lois qui entrent en jeu dans de telles circonstances peuvent, en effet, se révéler bénéfiques pour ces derniers d'un point de vue économique.

Elementos para un derecho de la competencia en el Ecuador (Tema Central)

El trabajo analiza los principios fundamentales del orden público económico: el de economía social de mercado y Estado social de derecho y sus relaciones con el modelo económico del Estado de bienestar, junto con derechos y libertades de comercio, empresa y competencia, como antecedentes básicos para la comprensión constitucional y conceptual de la competencia económica en Ecuador. Posteriormente se describen las diversas concepciones sobre el ser y deber ser de la legislación y política de protección de la competencia con relación a la diversa importancia otorgada a la estructura, comportamiento y resultados del mercado. Finalmente el análisis se adentra en las diversas tipologías de las prácticas restrictivas de la libre competencia, como los convenios o acuerdos entre empresas, los tipos de acuerdo horizontal entre los que encontramos: fijación de precios, licitación colusoria, reparto de mercados, limitación de la producción, negativa concertada a negociar, denegación colectiva de admisión en una asociación y los acuerdos verticales como la fijación de precios de reventa, acuerdos de exclusividad, reparto de mercado, ventas condicionadas o vinculadas. Concluye con la definición y alcance del abuso de posición dominante, concentraciones y fusiones.

Intellectual property, creativity and innovation : IP models and the political economy of developing Asia

In advanced capitalist societies, intellectual property laws protecting such subject matter as copyright and patents are justified by a combination of theories, which include the provision of economic incentives to foster creativity and innovation and the prevention of unfair competition. IP academics and policy makers have differing views about the appropriate balance between these objectives and public interest considerations such as health, education and the protection of the environment. These different views entered the policy debate in Asian developing countries in connection with an unprecedented introduction and expansion of IP laws over the last 25 years. This paper will use case studies of law reform from Asia, in particular Southeast Asia, to show that the policy considerations of governments in reforming their laws were often quite different from the standard rationale mentioned above. As much of the IP was, at least initially, held by foreigners and introduced to attract foreign investment, national development considerations were joined with the more commonly quoted objectives to promote the rights, creativity and innovation of individuals. Such national development objectives at times coincided and at other times collided with official explanations and received wisdom about the effects of stronger IP rights.

Especially in the early postcolonial period, copyright laws and other IP laws were frequently restricted or simply not implemented, if they conflicted with development policies in areas such as education or public health. Such policies were slowly changing in the wake of WTO-TRIPS and other international agreements. Nevertheless, the implementation and enforcement of the IP laws has been uneven. Specialised institutions such as courts and IP administering agencies compete with other branches of government and administration for limited funding and a rich repertoire of informal dispute settlement procedures has kept the number of court cases relatively low. In some countries, censorship laws have influenced freedom of expression and led to quite idiosyncratic interpretations of intellectual property laws. Governments often also retain a role in the assessment of licensing and technology transfer contracts. And while there are many programs to foster individual creativity, in most cases R & D activities are still largely taking place in government institutions and this has influenced the thinking about intellectual property rights and creativity in the context of employment.

The paper uses a few case studies to examine the implementation of IP laws in selected Asian developing countries to point to the quite different institutional setting for IP law reform in comparison to European or American models. It reaches some tentative conclusions as to the likely effects on creativity and innovation under these different circumstances.

O medo no contexto organizacional

This study looked for identify the causes and the effects of fear in the individuals within the organizational context. The procedure for data collection consisted in a questionnaire divided in two stages, and applied in 76 individuals. The first stage consisted in a words evocation test and the second, as a complementary mode, was composed by four open questions. The theory of social representations and the central nucleus theory were the foundations of the data analysis of the words evocation test. The processing of the open questions was consisted in an interpretative analysis, based in the presented theoretical referencial and supported by the respondents social representation of fear. In the enterprises context, different causes and effects of fear had been found in the inserted individuals. However, in its majority, it was identified that the biggest individuals fears are the unemployment, the threats, punishments, the unstable and unsafe environments of work, the unfair competition, the collusions, sabotages, tricks, the incapacity to do its work¿s tasks and the abusive increase of the work load. On the other hand, about the fear¿s effects, there is a frequent physiological and psychological instability when they had been submitted in high work loads. The fear is an excellent creativity, innovation and aptitude repressor, and it is capable to generate disgusts, frustrations, defensive postures, standstills and to increase the jobs navigability.