Stone tool use by adult wild bearded capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus). Frequency, efficiency and tool selectivity

Chimpanzees have been the traditional referential models for investigating human evolution and stone tool use by hominins. We enlarge this comparative scenario by describing normative use of hammer stones and anvils in two wild groups of bearded capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) over one year. We found that most of the individuals habitually use stones and anvils to crack nuts and other encased food items. Further, we found that in adults (1) males use stone tools more frequently than females, (2) males crack high resistance nuts more frequently than females, (3) efficiency at opening a food by percussive tool use varies according to the resistance of the encased food, (4) heavier individuals are more efficient at cracking high resistant nuts than smaller individuals, and (5) to crack open encased foods, both sexes select hammer stones on the basis of material and weight. These findings confirm and extend previous experimental evidence concerning tool selectivity in wild capuchin monkeys (Visalberghi et al., 2009b; Fragaszy et al., 2010b). Male capuchins use tools more frequently than females and body mass is the best predictor of efficiency, but the sexes do not differ in terms of efficiency. We argue that the contrasting pattern of sex differences in capuchins compared with chimpanzees, in which females use tools more frequently and more skillfully than males, may have arisen from the degree of sexual dimorphism in body size of the two species, which is larger in capuchins than in chimpanzees. Our findings show the importance of taking sex and body mass into account as separate variables to assess their role in tool use. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Stone tool use in wild bearded capuchin monkeys, Cebus libidinosus. Is it a strategy to overcome food scarcity?

To determine whether tool use varied in relation to food availability in bearded capuchin monkeys, we recorded anvil and stone hammer use in two sympatric wild groups, one of which was provisioned daily, and assessed climatic variables and availability of fruits, invertebrates and palm nuts. Capuchins used tools to crack open encased fruits, mostly palm nuts, throughout the year. Significant differences between wet and dry seasons were found in rainfall, abundance of invertebrates and palm nuts, but not in fruit abundance. Catule nuts were more abundant in the dry season. We tested the predictions of the necessity hypothesis (according to which tool use is maintained by sustenance needs during resource scarcity) and of the opportunity hypothesis (according to which tool use is maintained by repeated exposure to appropriate ecological conditions, such as preferred food resources necessitating the use of tools). Our findings support only the opportunity hypothesis. The rate of tool use was not affected by provisioning, and the monthly rate of tool use was not correlated with the availability of fruits and invertebrates. Conversely, all capuchins cracked food items other than palm nuts (e.g. cashew nuts) when available, and adult males cracked nuts more in the dry season when catule nuts (the most common and exploited nut) are especially abundant. Hence, in our field site capuchins use tools opportunistically. (C) 2012 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The decomposition of starch grains in soils: implications for archaeological residue analyses

Recent research involving starch grains recovered from archaeological contexts has highlighted the need for a review of the mechanisms and consequences of starch degradation specifically relevant to archaeology. This paper presents a review of the plant physiological and soil biochemical literature pertinent to the archaeological investigation of starch grains found as residues on artefacts and in archaeological sediments. Preservative and destructive factors affecting starch survival, including enzymes, clays, metals and soil properties, as well as differential degradation of starches of varying sizes and amylose content, were considered. The synthesis and character of chloroplast-formed 'transitory' starch grains, and the differentiation of these from 'storage' starches formed in tubers and seeds were also addressed. Findings of the review include the higher susceptibility of small starch grains to biotic degradation, and that protective mechanisms are provided to starch by both soil aggregates and artefact surfaces. These findings suggest that current reasoning which equates higher numbers of starch grains on an artefact than in associated sediments with the use of the artefact for processing starchy plants needs to be reconsidered. It is argued that an increased understanding of starch decomposition processes is necessary to accurately reconstruct both archaeological activities involving starchy plants and environmental change investigated through starch analysis. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

An archaeology of the instant? Action and narrative in microscopic archaeological residue analyses

The discovery and interpretation of microscopic residues on stone artefacts is an expanding front within archaeological science, allowing reconstructions of the past use of specific tools. With notable exceptions, however, the field has seen little theoretical development, relying largely on a rationale in which either individual findings are widely generalized or the age of the site determines the importance of the results. Here an approach to residue interpretation is proposed that draws on notions of narrative, scale, action and agency as one means of expanding the theoretical scope and application of residue studies. It is suggested that the individual resonance of the findings of residue analyses with people in the present day can be used to provide a more nuanced understanding of past actions, which in turn allows both better integration and communication of those findings within and outside the archaeological comm unity, and begins to overcome the problems associated with the typically small sample sizes analysed in stone-tool residue studies.

Bone tool analysis

This article examines the osseous technologies that can be created from animal skeletons. 'Tool' status is accorded to a skeletal element or fragment that has been modified subsequent to its isolation from the carcass. Such anthropic adaptation may be deliberate (e.g., through manufacture) and/or appear as a result of utilization, and is granted in instances where these details cannot otherwise be ascribed to alternative nonanthropic causes. Implements can display a combination of traces from both human and natural sources and as such the study of them involves both zooarchaeological (i.e., via animal ecology, hunting, and butchery) and technological analysis.... As an exemplar of this, the following discussion will present some of the similarities and differences that exist between osseous and lithic raw materials and tool-blank production, and will situate both in an operational sequence of animal procurement and processing. It will then give an account of principal manufacturing techniques, methods for establishing tool function, and the phenomenon of 'pseudo tools'. © 2008 Copyright © 2008 Elsevier Inc.

The probability archive : from essence to uncertainty in the growth of knowledge

From a ‘cultural science’ perspective, this paper traces one aspect of a more general shift, from the realist representational regime of modernity to the productive DIY systems of the internet era. It argues that collecting and archiving is transformed by this change. Modern museums – and also broadcast television – were based on determinist or ‘essence’ theory; while internet archives like YouTube (and the internet as an archive) are based on ‘probability’ theory. The paper goes through the differences between modernist ‘essence’ and postmodern ‘probability’; starting from the obvious difference that in a museum each object is selected by experts for its intrinsic properties, while on the internet you don’t know what you will find. The status of individual objects is uncertain, although the productivity of the overall archive is unlimited. The paper links these differences with changes in contemporary culture – from a Newtonian to a quantum universe, progress to risk, institutional structure to evolutionary change, objectivity to uncertainty, identity to performance. Borrowing some of its methodology from science fiction, the paper uses examples from museums and online archives, ranging from the oldest stone tool in the world to the latest tribute vid on the net.

Étude technologique et morphologique de la cornéenne dans le sud du Québec : le cas de la carrière préhistorique du mont Royal (BjFj-97) à Montréal.

Le site de la carrière du mont Royal (BjFj-97), découvert en 1993 par Yvon Codère et inventorié en 1997 par l’équipe d’Ethnoscop Inc., constitue une énigme archéologique intéressante pour quiconque s’intéresse à la préhistoire de l’île de Montréal et de sa région adjacente. Lors des activités archéologiques de 1997, quelques idées furent émises quant à son affiliation chronologique et sa nature, suggérant une occupation remontant à l’Archaïque terminal (4000 à 3000 AA) orientée vers l’extraction et la transformation de la cornéenne, une pierre métamorphique résultant de la transformation du substrat rocheux en place suite à des intrusions magmatiques lors du Crétacé qui ont créé les Montérégiennes. Le matériel, comprenant plus de 10 000 déchets de taille et un peu plus de 70 artéfacts divers, ne fît pas l’objet d’analyses poussées hormis la datation approximative du site par un examen sommaire des pointes de projectile. Ce mémoire reprend les données de 1997 et apporte une perspective nouvelle au site en décrivant morphologiquement et technologiquement le débitage de la pierre de façon à comprendre la chaîne opératoire de la cornéenne, une matière peu étudiée, mais fort commune au Québec méridional, appréhender les possibilités de la matière et aborder les questions de datation. L’ensemble du matériel lithique fît l’objet d’une analyse lithique poussée axée sur le débitage et les produits finis et propose la prépondérance de la taille bifaciale, ponctuée par un débitage sur éclat conséquent. L’ensemble des étapes de la chaîne opératoire est présent sur le site de la carrière du mont Royal. La cornéenne est une matière difficile à tailler en raison de son imprévisibilité, liée à la structure même de la matière, menant à un fort taux d’échecs lors de l’élaboration des outils. La datation de l’occupation principale du site pointe vers l’Archaïque terminal, mais le caractère équivoque des diverses classes d’objets rend difficile sa définition absolue, faute d’objets parfaitement diagnostiques. Le site BjFj-97 ressemble grandement à un site homologue en Nouvelle-Angleterre où la cornéenne fût travaillée suivant le même schéma opératoire, suggérant un apparentement culturel possible. La cornéenne abonde et domine dans les assemblages archéologiques de la région montréalaise, substituant ainsi des matières de meilleure qualité absentes régionalement. Leurs correspondances chronologiques transcendent celles établies lors de l’analyse du matériel de la carrière et montrent un étalement chronologiquement plus étendu, de l’Archaïque laurentien au Sylvicole supérieur. La cornéenne se retrouve habituellement sous forme d’outils bifaciaux fonctionnels (bifaces, couteaux et pointes de projectile) de piètre facture et d’outils sur éclats (grattoirs et racloirs) rudimentaires, suggérant une signification strictement utilitaire, le propre des matières de basse qualité. Les modes d’extraction de la cornéenne restent inconnus sur le mont Royal. Le mont Royal est plus qu’un vulgaire point défensif, il constitue la base de la subsistance des populations préhistoriques de jadis où se trouvent les matériaux nécessaires à la taille d’outils de prédation liés à un mode de vie mobile où domine la chasse.

Pleistocene geochronologies for fluvial sedimentary sequences: an archaeologist's perspective

Current models of Pleistocene fluvial system development and dynamics are assessed from the perspective of European Lower and Middle Palaeolithic stone tool assemblages recovered from fluvial secondary contexts. Fluvial activity is reviewed both in terms of Milankovitch-scale processes across the glacial/interglacial cycles of the Middle and Late Pleistocene, and in response to sub-Milankovitch scale, high-frequency, low-magnitude climatic oscillations. The chronological magnitude of individual phases of fluvial activity is explored in terms of radiocarbon-dated sequences from the Late Glacial and early Holocene periods. It is apparent that fluvial activity is associated with periods of climatic transition, both high and low magnitude, although system response is far more universal in the case of the high magnitude glacial/ interglacial transitions. Current geochronological tools do not permit the development of high-resolution sequences for Middle Pleistocene sediments, while localised erosion and variable system responses do not facilitate direct comparison with the ice core records. However, Late Glacial and early Holocene sequences indicate that individual fluvial activity phases are relatively brief in duration (e.g. 10(2) and 10(3) yr). From an archaeological perspective, secondary context assemblages can only be interpreted in terms of a floating geochronology, although the data also permit a reinvestigation of the problems of artefact reworking. Copyright (c) 2005 John Wiley I Sons, Ltd.

Microliths and maritime mobility: a continental European-style Late Mesolithic flint from the Isles of Scilly

Once Britain had become separated from the European mainland in the seventh millennium BC, Mesolithic stone tool traditions on opposite sides of the newly formed Channel embarked upon different directions of development. Patterns of cross-Channel contact have been difficult to decipher in this material, prior to the expansion of farming (and possibly farmers) from northern France at the beginning of the fourth millennium BC. Hence the discovery of Late Mesolithic microliths of apparently Belgian affinity at the western extremity of southern Britain in the Isles of Scilly comes as something of a surprise. The find is described here in detail, along with alternative scenarios that might explain it. The article is followed by a series of comments, with a closing reply from the authors.

Early hunter-gatheres in the Terra Firme Rainforest: stemmed projectile points from the Curuá goldmines

Achados acidentais de instrumentos líticos em região de terra firme junto ao rio Curuá, no médio curso da Bacia do Xingu, sugere uma ocupação disseminada por caçador-coletores pré-cerâmicos na região, contrariamente a expectativas de que a floresta tropical teria recursos alimentares insuficientes para a ocupação humana longe da várzea. Os artefatos líticos incluem pontas de projétil de lascamento cuidadoso, possivelmente relacionados a alguns artefatos do Pleistoceno final encontrados na Caverna da Pedra Pintada, em Monte Alegre. Os resíduos alimentares encontrados com os artefatos de Monte Alegre eram de uma economia de coleta de ambientes rupestres e ribeirinhos. As pontas do Xingu foram recolhidas por garimpeiros nas reias e cascalhos no leito do rio Curuá. Os garimpeiros encontraram os artefatos enquanto escavavam e peneiravam sedimentos auríferos. Tais depósitos algumas vezes também contêm remanescentes de plantas e artefatos de madeira pré-históricos, fontes de informação potencial sobre antigos habitats, subsistência e tecnologia. O grupo de pesquisa do Projeto Baixo Amazonas viajou a diversos dos sítios submersos com os garimpeiros para preparar escavações para o futuro. Em um sítio, Curupité, onde os garimpeiros encontraram uma grande ponta com pedúnculo e um arpão de madeira inteiro em 1986, a equipe utilizou equipamento de mergulho para prospectar o leito do rio e os barrancos, e mapearam a topografa com um teodolito a laser.

Tranferência de aprendizagem no uso de ferramentas por macacos-prego (Cebus cf. apella)

Estudiosos questionam se a proficiência de macacos-prego (Cebus spp.) no uso de objetos como ferramentas, seria fruto de descobertas arbitrárias decorrentes dos frequentes comportamentos exploratórios desses primatas ou se seria devida à compreensão da função das ferramentas. Considerando que tais animais são capazes de modificar, transportar e fabricar ferramentas é possível propor que algum nível de compreensão esteja envolvido, ainda que não seja desvinculado de sua história de vida e sim construído a partir de uma série de interações com situações relevantes para a aquisição de um repertório generalizado de uso de ferramentas. A fim de investigar tal proposta foi realizada uma série de experimentos com dois grupos de macacos-prego (Cebus cf. apella) em que foi manipulada a história experimental desses animais. Todos os sujeitos passaram por repetidas exposições a um problema em que deveriam encaixar seis blocos de brinquedo para construir uma torre, usá-la para ter acesso a uma vareta distante, com essa vareta chegar a uma segunda vareta e encaixá-las formando uma haste longa o suficiente para permitir a recolha de pelotas de alimento em um equipamento. Enquanto dois sujeitos foram repetidamente expostos ao referido problema sem receber nenhum treino adicional, outros dois sujeitos tiveram uma rica história experimental construída, passando pelo treino em tarefas indiretamente relacionadas ao problema final entre as reapresentações do mesmo. Os sujeitos do primeiro grupo não foram capazes de resolver o problema, ao passo que os do segundo grupo o fizeram, ainda que não tenham sido diretamente treinados a isso. Concluiu-se que uma história relevante é fundamental para a chamada compreensão da solução de um problema e que essa compreensão ou insight são processos comportamentais adaptativos, em que habilidades aprendidas em um contexto específicosão transferidas para novos contextos a partir de processos básicos como a Generalização de Estímulos, a Generalização Funcional e o Learning Set.

Aplicação de métodos ergonômicos na avaliação de ferramentas produzidas e utilizadas por homens na Pré-História

The study of prehistoric artifacts may contribute to understand the development of these artifacts, and also of ergonomics. This study aims to investigate and identify the types of grips of two Brazilian stone tools (scraper / piercer and a slug) approximately 5000 years old through the use of gloves with sensors and contact maps of the hand palm, exploring the best method for research of ergonomics in prehistory. Hence it can contribute to the discussion of a part of the ergonomics’ history that remains underexplored.