Family physician involvement in cancer care follow-up: the experience of a cohort of patients with lung cancer.

PURPOSE There has been little research describing the involvement of family physicians in the follow up of patients with cancer especially during the primary treatment phase We undertook a prospective longitudinal study of patients with lung cancer to assess their family physician s involvement in their follow up at the different phases of cancer METHODS In 5 hospitals in the province of Quebec Canada patients with a recent diagnosis of lung cancer were surveyed every 3 to 6 months whether they had metastasis or not, for a maximum of 18 months to assess aspects of their family physician s involvement in cancer care RESULTS Of the 395 participating patients 92% had a regular family physician but only 60% had been referred to a specialist by him/her or a colleague for the diagnosis of their lung cancer A majority of patients identified the oncology team or oncologists as mainly responsible for their cancer care throughout their cancer journey except at the advanced phase where a majority attributed this role to their family physician At baseline only 16% of patients perceived a shared care pattern between their family physician and oncologists but this pro portion increased with cancer progression Most patients would have liked their family physician to be more involved in all aspects of cancer care CONCLUSIONS Although patients perceive that the oncology team is the main party responsible for the follow up of their lung cancer they also wish their family physicians to be involved Better communication and collaboration between family physicians and the oncology team are needed to facilitate shared care in cancer follow up

Satisfaction with primary care:the perspectives of people with schizophrenia

Background. Schizophrenia affects up to 1% of the population in the UK. People with schizophrenia use the National Health Service frequently and over a long period of time. However, their views on satisfaction with primary care are rarely sought. Objectives. This study aimed to explore the elements of satisfaction with primary care for people with schizophrenia. Method. A primary care-based study was carried out using semi-structured interviews with 45 patients with schizophrenia receiving shared care with the Northern Birmingham Mental Health Trust between 1999 and 2000. Results. Five major themes that affect satisfaction emerged from the data: the exceptional potential of the consultation itself; the importance of aspects of the organization of primary care; the construction of the user in the doctor-patient relationship; the influence of stereotypes on GP behaviour; and the importance of hope for recovery. Conclusion. Satisfaction with primary care is multiply mediated. It is also rarely expected or achieved by this group of patients. There is a significant gap between the rhetoric and the reality of user involvement in primary care consultations. Acknowledging the tensions between societal and GP views of schizophrenia as an incurable life sentence and the importance to patients of hope for recovery is likely to lead to greater satisfaction with primary health care for people with schizophrenia.

Exploring business models to provide a foundation for enhanced eye care services in high street optometric practice

High street optometric practices are for-profit businesses. They mostly provide sight testing and eye examination services and sell optical products, such as spectacles and contact lenses. The sight testing services are often sold at a vastly reduced price and profits are generated primarily through high margin spectacle sales, in a loss leading strategy. Published literature highlights weaknesses in this strategy as it forms a barrier to widening the scope of services provided within optometric practices. This includes specialist non-refraction based services, such as shared care. In addition this business strategy discourages investment in advanced diagnostic equipment and higher professional qualifications. The aim of this thesis was to develop a greater understanding of the traditional loss-leading strategy. The thesis also aimed to assess the plausibility of alternative business models to support the development of specialist non-refraction services within high street optometric practice. This research was based on a single independent optometric practice that specialises in advanced retinal imaging and offers a broad range of shared care services. Specialist non-refraction based services were found to be poor generators of spectacle sales likely due to patient needs and presenting concerns. Alternative business strategies to support these services included charging more realistic professional fees via cost-based pricing and monthly payment plans. These strategies enabled specialist services to be more self-sustainable with less reliance on cross-subsidy from spectacle sales. Furthermore, improving operational efficiency can increase stand-alone profits for specialist services.Practice managers may be reluctant to increase professional fees due to market pressures and confidence. However, this thesis found that patients were accepting of increased professional fees. Practice managers can implement alternative business models to enhance eye care provision in high street optometric practices. These alternative business models also improve revenues and profits generated via clinical services and improve patient loyalty.

Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of schizophrenia and related disorders

Background: The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists is co-ordinating the development of clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) in psychiatry, funded under the National Mental Health Strategy (Australia) and the New Zealand Health Funding Authority. This paper presents CPGs for schizophrenia and related disorders. Over the past decade schizophrenia has become more treatable than ever before. A new generation of drug therapies, a renaissance of psychological and psychosocial interventions and a first generation of reform within the specialist mental health system have combined to create an evidence-based climate of realistic optimism. Progressive neuroscientific advances hold out the strong possibility of more definitive biological treatments in the near future. However, this improved potential for better outcomes and quality of life for people with schizophrenia has not been translated into reality in Australia. The efficacy-effectiveness gap is wider for schizophrenia than any other serious medical disorder. Therapeutic nihilism, under-resourcing of services and a stalling of the service reform process, poor morale within specialist mental health services, a lack of broad-based recovery and life support programs, and a climate of tenacious stigma and consequent lack of concern for people with schizophrenia are the contributory causes for this failure to effectively treat. These guidelines therefore tackle only one element in the endeavour to reduce the impact of schizophrenia. They distil the current evidence-base and make recommendations based on the best available knowledge. Method: A comprehensive literature review (1990-2003) was conducted, including all Cochrane schizophrenia reviews and all relevant meta-analyses, and a number of recent international clinical practice guidelines were consulted. A series of drafts were refined by the expert committee and enhanced through a bi-national consultation process. Treatment recommendations: This guideline provides evidence-based recommendations for the management of schizophrenia by treatment type and by phase of illness. The essential features of the guidelines are: (i) Early detection and comprehensive treatment of first episode cases is a priority since the psychosocial and possibly the biological impact of illness can be minimized and outcome improved. An optimistic attitude on the part of health professionals is an essential ingredient from the outset and across all phases of illness. (ii) Comprehensive and sustained intervention should be assured during the initial 3-5 years following diagnosis since course of illness is strongly influenced by what occurs in this 'critical period'. Patients should not have to 'prove chronicity' before they gain consistent access and tenure to specialist mental health services. (iii) Antipsychotic medication is the cornerstone of treatment. These medicines have improved in quality and tolerability, yet should be used cautiously and in a more targeted manner than in the past. The treatment of choice for most patients is now the novel antipsychotic medications because of their superior tolerability and, in particular, the reduced risk of tardive dyskinesia. This is particularly so for the first episode patient where, due to superior tolerability, novel agents are the first, second and third line choice. These novel agents are nevertheless associated with potentially serious medium to long-term side-effects of their own for which patients must be carefully monitored. Conventional antipsychotic medications in low dosage may still have a role in a small proportion of patients, where there has been full remission and good tolerability; however, the indications are shrinking progressively. These principles are now accepted in most developed countries. (vi) Clozapine should be used early in the course, as soon as treatment resistance to at least two antipsychotics has been demonstrated. This usually means incomplete remission of positive symptomatology, but clozapine may also be considered where there are pervasive negative symptoms or significant or persistent suicidal risk is present. (v) Comprehensive psychosocial interventions should be routinely available to all patients and their families, and provided by appropriately trained mental health professionals with time to devote to the task. This includes family interventions, cognitive-behaviour therapy, vocational rehabilitation and other forms of therapy, especially for comorbid conditions, such as substance abuse, depression and anxiety. (vi) The social and cultural environment of people with schizophrenia is an essential arena for intervention. Adequate shelter, financial security, access to meaningful social roles and availability of social support are essential components of recovery and quality of life. (vii) Interventions should be carefully tailored to phase and stage of illness, and to gender and cultural background. (viii) Genuine involvement of consumers and relatives in service development and provision should be standard. (ix) Maintenance of good physical health and prevention and early treatment of serious medical illness has been seriously neglected in the management of schizophrenia, and results in premature death and widespread morbidity. Quality of medical care for people with schizophrenia should be equivalent to the general community standard. (x) General practitioners (GPs)s should always be closely involved in the care of people with schizophrenia. However, this should be truly shared care, and sole care by a GP with minimal or no special Optimal treatment of schizophrenia requires a multidisciplinary team approach with a consultant psychiatrist centrally involved.

Insuficiência cardíaca. Uma epidemia do século XXI. O desafio do diagnóstico

Resumo: A insuficiência cardíaca, já denominada de epidemia do século XXI é, de entre as doenças cardiovasculares, a única cuja incidência e prevalência continuam a crescer, apesar dos imensos progressos feitos na área da terapêutica nas últimas duas décadas. Caracteriza-se por elevada mortalidade – superior à do conjunto das neoplasias malignas -, grande morbilidade, consumo de recursos e custos exuberantes. É um dos problemas mais graves de Saúde Pública dos Países industrializados, cujo manejo deverá constituir uma prioridade para os Serviços Nacionais de Saúde. Todavia, o reconhecimento universal da gravidade desta situação tem originado poucas soluções concretas para conter a epidemia, cujo protagonismo não cessa de aumentar. É possível hoje prevenir, tratar de forma a retardar a evolução da doença ou até revertê-la, desde que diagnosticada atempadamente. Qualquer atitude nestas áreas pressupõe um diagnóstico correcto, precoce e completo da situação, sem o qual não haverá um tratamento adequado. O diagnóstico tem preocupado bem menos os investigadores e os clínicos que a terapêutica. É, contudo, comprovadamente difícil a todos os níveis dos Cuidados de Saúde e constitui certamente a primeira barreira ao controlo da situação. OBJECTIVOS: À luz do conhecimento actual e da nossa própria experiência, propusemo-nos analisar os problemas do diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca e a forma como eles se repercutem no manejo da doença e na saúde das populações. Foram objectivos desta dissertação avaliar como a evolução dos modelos de insuficiência cardíaca e de disfunção ventricular influenciaram a definição e os critérios de diagnóstico da doença ao longo do tempo; as consequências geradas pela falta de consenso quanto à definição e aos critérios de diagnóstico nas diferentes fases de evolução desta entidade; discutir o papel da clínica e dos exames complementares no diagnóstico da síndrome e nas estratégias de rastreio da disfunção cardíaca; apontar alguns caminhos e possíveis metodologias para o manejo da doença de forma a que possamos, no futuro, diagnosticar melhor para melhor prevenir, tratar e conter a epidemia. METODOLOGIA: A metodologia utilizada neste trabalho decorre directamente da actividade assistencial diária e da investigação clínica gerada no interesse pelos problemas com que nos deparámos, ao longo dos anos, na área da insuficiência cardíaca. A par com o estudo epidemiológico da insuficiência cardíaca em Portugal, desenvolvemos um protocolo original para a avaliação da qualidade do diagnóstico no ambulatório e do papel da clínica e dos diferentes exames complementares no diagnóstico da síndrome. Avaliámos os problemas do diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca em meio hospitalar através de um inquérito endereçado aos Directores de Serviço, pelo Grupo de Estudo de Insuficiência Cardíaca da Sociedade Portuguesa de Cardiologia. Analisámos a qualidade do diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca codificado à data da alta hospitalar. Após a criação de uma área específica, vocacionada para o internamento de doentes com insuficiência cardíaca, avaliámos o seu impacto no diagnóstico e tratamento da síndrome. Também testámos o desempenho dos peptídeos natriuréticos no diagnóstico dos diferentes tipos de insuficiência cardíaca sintomática, em meio hospitalar. Os resultados parciais da investigação clínica foram sendo comunicados à comunidade científica e publicados em revistas da especialidade. Discutimos, nesta dissertação, os artigos publicados e em publicação, à luz do estado actual da arte na área do diagnóstico. Reflectimos sobre as consequências das dificuldades no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca e apontamos possíveis caminhos para implementar o rastreio. RESULTADOS: Em 1982, muito no início da nossa actividade clínica, cientes da complexidade da insuficiência cardíaca e do desafio que a sua abordagem constituía para os clínicos,empenhávamo-nos no desenvolvimento de uma classificação fisiopatológica original da insuficiência cardíaca, que foi tema para a Tese de Doutoramento da Professora Doutora Fátima Ceia em 1989. sistemático da doença, melhorar os cuidados prestados aos doentes e diminuir os custos envolvidos no manejo da síndrome. No artigo 1 – Insuficiência cardíaca: novos conceitos fisiopatológicos e implicações terapêuticas – publicado em 1984, descrevemos, à luz do conhecimento da época, a insuficiência cardíaca como uma doença sistémica, resultado da interacção entre os múltiplos mecanismos de compensação da disfunção cardíaca. Desenvolvemos “uma classificação fisiopatológica com implicações terapêuticas” original, onde delineámos os diferentes tipos de insuficiência cardíaca, as suas principais características clínicas, hemodinâmicas, funcionais e anatómicas e propuzemos terapêutica individualizada de acordo com a definição e o diagnóstico dos diferentes tipos de insuficiência cardíaca. Em 1994, no artigo 2 – A insuficiência cardíaca e o clínico no fim do século vinte – salientamos a forma como os diferentes mecanismos de compensação interagem, influenciam a evolução da doença no tempo, produzem síndromes diferentes e fundamentam a actuação terapêutica. Discutimos a evolução da definição da doença de acordo com o melhor conhecimento da sua fisiopatologia e etiopatogenia. Sublinhamos a necessidade de desenvolver estratégias para a prevenção da doença, o diagnóstico precoce e o tratamento atempado. Ainda no primeiro capítulo: Insuficiência cardíaca: da fisiopatologia à clínica – um modelo em constante evolução – revisitámos os sucessivos modelos fisiopatológicos da insuficiência cardíaca: cardio-renal, hemodinâmico, neuro-hormonal e imuno-inflamatório e a sua influência na definição da síndrome e nos critérios de diagnóstico. Analisámos a evolução do conceito de disfunção cardíaca que, à dicotomia da síndrome em insuficiência cardíaca por disfunção sistólica e com função sistólica normal, contrapõe a teoria do contínuo na evolução da doença. Esta última, mais recente, defende que estas duas formas de apresentação não são mais do que fenótipos diferentes, extremos, de uma mesma doença que origina vários cenários, desde a insuficiência cardíaca com fracção de ejecção normal à disfunção sistólica ventricular grave No capítulo II - O diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca: problemas e consequências previsíveis - analisamos as consequências da falta de critérios de diagnóstico consensuais para a insuficiência cardíaca em todo o seu espectro, ao longo do tempo. As dificuldades de diagnóstico reflectem-se nos resultados resultados dos estudos epidemiológicos. Vivemos essa dificuldade quando necessitámos de definir critérios de diagnóstico exequíveis no ambulatório, abrangendo todos os tipos de insuficiência cardíaca e de acordo com as Recomendações, para o programa EPICA –EPidemiologia da Insuficiência Cardíaca e Aprendizagem – desenhado para os Cuidados Primários de Saúde. No artigo 3 – Epidemiologia da insuficiência cardíaca e Aprendizagem – desenhado para os Cuidados Primários de Saúde. No artigo 3 – Epidemiologia da insuficiência cardíaca – discutimos as consequências dos grandes estudos epidemiológicos terem adoptado ao longo dos anos definições e critérios de diagnóstico muito variáveis,conduzindo a valores de prevalência e incidência da doença por vezes também muito diferentes. O problema agudiza-se quando se fala em insuficiência cardíaca com fracção de ejecção normal ou com disfunção diastólica, ou ainda em rastreio da disfunção cardíaca assintomática, situações para as quais tem sido extraordinariamente difícil consensualizar critérios de diagnóstico e estratégias. É notória a ausência de grandes estudos de terapêutica no contexto da insuficiência cardíaca com fracção de ejecção normal ou com disfunção diastólica que, à falta de Recomendações terapêuticas baseadas na evidência, continuamos a tratar de acordo com a fisiopatologia. Assim, discrepâncias provavelmente mais relacionadas com os critérios de diagnóstico utilizados do que com diferenças reais entre as populações, dificultam o nosso entendimento quanto ao real peso da insuficiência cardíaca e da disfunção ventricular assintomática. Também comprometerão certamente a correcta alocação de recursos para necessidades que, na realidade, conhecemos mal. O artigo 4 – Prévalence de l’ insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal – apresenta o desenho dos estudos EPICA e EPICA-RAM. O EPICA foi dos primeiros estudos a avaliar a prevalência da insuficiência cardíaca sintomática global, na comunidade, de acordo com os critérios da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia. Definimos critérios ecocardiográficos de disfunção cardíaca para todos os tipos de insuficiência cardíaca, nomeadamente para as situações com fracção de ejecção normal, numa época em que ainda não havia na literatura Recomendações consensuais. No artigo 5 – Prevalence of chronic heart failure in Southwestern Europe: the EPICA study - relatamos a prevalência da insuficiência cardíaca em Portugal con-supra-diagnosticada em 8,3%. A codificação hospitalar falhou uma percentagem significativa de doentes com insuficiência cardíaca, minimizando assim o peso da síndrome, com eventual repercussão na alocação dos recursos necessários ao seu manejo no hospital e para a indispensável interface com os Cuidados Primários de Saúde. No artigo 8 – Tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca em hospitais portugueses: resultados de um inquérito – todos os inquiridos relataram dificuldades no diagnóstico atempado da insuficiência cardíaca. Os Directores dos Serviços de Cardiologia reclamam mais recursos humanos vocacionados e estruturas hospitalares especializadas no diagnóstico e tratamento da síndrome, enquanto que os Directores dos Serviços de Medicina necessitam de facilidades de acesso aos métodos complementares de diagnóstico como a ecocardiografia e de maior apoio do Cardiologista. As dificuldades no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca,a todos os níveis de cuidados, acarretam assim consequências epidemiológicas, sócio-económicas e financeiras nefastas para o doente individual, a planificação do Sistema Nacional de Saúde e para a Saúde Pública No capítulo III relembramos a importância do diagnóstico completo da insuficiência cardíaca que, para além do diagnóstico sindromático e anatomo-funcional, deverá incluir o diagnóstico etiológico, e das comorbilidades. Muitos destes aspectos podem comprometer a interpretação dos exames complementares de diagnóstico e, não raramente, as indicações dos fármacos que influenciam a sobrevida dos doentes, a estratégia terapêutica e o prognóstico da síndrome Conscientes das dificuldades no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca nos Cuidados Primários de Saúde e do papel preponderante dos especialistas em Medicina Familiar na contenção da epidemia, propusemo-nos, como objectivos secundários do estudo EPICA (artigo 5), investigar a acuidade diagnóstica dos instrumentos à disposição daqueles colegas, na prática clínica diária: a clínica e os exames complementares de diagnóstico de primeira linha. O artigo 10 – The diagnosis of heart failure in primary care: value of symptoms and signs - documenta o valor limitado dos sinais, sintomas e dados da história pregressa, quando usados isoladamente, no diagnóstico da síndrome. Todos têm baixa sensibilidade para o diagnóstico. Têm maior valor preditor os associados às situações congestivas, mais graves: a dispneia paroxística nocturna (LR 35,5), a ortopneia (LR 39,1), a dificuldade respiratória para a marcha em plano horizontal (LR 25,8), o ingurgitamento jugular > 6 cm com hepatomegalia e edema dos membros inferiores (LR 130,3), que estão raramente presentes na população de insuficientes cardíacos do ambulatório (sensibilidade <10%). O galope ventricular (LR 30,0), a taquicardia >110ppm (LR 26,7) e os fervores crepitantes (LR 23,3) também estão associados ao diagnóstico, mas são também pouco frequentes na população estudada (sensibilidade < 36%). São ainda preditores do diagnóstico o tratamento prévio com digitálico (LR 24,9) e/ou com diurético (LR 10,6), uma história prévia de edema pulmonar agudo (LR 54,2) ou de doença das artérias coronárias (LR 7,1). No artigo 11- Aetiology, comorbidity and drug therapy of chronic heart failure in the real world: the EPICA substudy - confirmámos que a hipertensão arterial é, de entre os factores de risco e/ou etiológicos, a causa mais frequente de insuficiência cardíaca no ambulatório, em Portugal (80%). Trinta e nove por cento dos doentes do estudo EPICA têm história de doença coronária e 15% de fibrilhação auricular. Quantificámos a comorbilidade e analisámos a sua potencial influência no facto da prescrição terapêutica estar aquém das Recomendações internacionais em Portugal, como aliás em toda a Europa. No artigo 12 - The value of electrocardiogram and X-ray for confirming or refuting a suspected diagnosis of heart failure in the community – demonstrámos que os dados do ECG e do RX do tórax não permitem predizer o diagnóstico de insuficiência cardíaca na comunidade; 25% dos doentes com insuficiência cardíaca objectiva tinham ECG ou RX do tórax normais. No artigo 13 - Evaluation of the performance and concordance of clinical questionnaires for heart failure in primary care - comparámos sete questionários e sistemas de pontuação habitualmente utilizados nos grandes estudos, para o diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca. Mostraram ter, na sua maioria, uma concordância razoável ou boa entre si. Foram muito específicos (>90%) mas pouco sensíveis. Aumentaram a probabilidade do diagnóstico de 4,3% pré-teste para 25 a 30% pós-teste. Revelaram-se um melhor instrumento para a exclusão da causa cardíaca dos sintomas do que para o diagnóstico da síndrome O artigo 14 - Epidemiologia da insuficiência cardíaca em Portugal continental: novos dados do estudo EPICA – compara as características dos doentes com suspeita clínica, não comprovada, de insuficiência cardíaca (falsos positivos), com os casos de insuficiência cardíaca. Os primeiros são mais idosos, mais mulheres, com mais excesso de peso, menos história de doença das artérias coronárias. Confirma ainda que a clínica, o ECG e o Rx tórax não permitem diferenciar os doentes com insuficiência cardíaca por disfunção sistólica ventricular daqueles que têm fracção de ejecção normal. Perante o desafio do diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca com fracção de ejecção normal, as dificuldades de acesso à ecocardiografia na comunidade e os custos acrescidos do exame, pretendemos averiguar no artigo 15 - The diagnostic challenge of heart failure with preserved systolic function in primary care setting: an EPICA-RAM sub-study - o desempenho do BNP no rastreio dos doentes com a suspeita clínica do diagnóstico, a enviar para ecocardiografia. Testámos o desempenho do teste como preditor do diagnóstico clínico da insuficiência cardíaca com função sistólica preservada, bem como dos indicadores ecocardiográficos de disfunção diastólica utilizados no estudo: dilatação da aurícula esquerda e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda. O teste apenas foi bom preditor da dilatação da aurícula esquerda, mas não do diagnóstico clínico deste tipo de insuficiência cardíaca, nem da presença de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda diagnosticada por ecocardiografia (área abaixo da curva ROC: 0,89, 0,56 e 0,54 respectivamente). Concluímos que, isoladamente, não será um bom método de rastreio da doença na comunidade, nem poderá substituir o ecocardiograma no doente com a suspeita clínica do diagnóstico, pelo menos nas fases precoces, pouco sintomáticas da doença. Estudámos e comparámos o desempenho dos peptídeos natriuréticos do tipo B - BNP e NT-proBNP - no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca sintomática, por disfunção sistólica e com fracção de ejecção preservada, no internamento hospitalar. Avaliámos doentes e voluntários normais, de forma a estabelecermos os cut-off do nosso laboratório. Relatámos os resultados deste trabalho no artigo 16 – Valor comparativo do BNP e do NT-proBNP no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardía-ca. Ambos os testes tiveram um excelente desempenho no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca sintomática, em meio hospitalar, mas nenhum foi capaz de diferenciar a insuficiência cardíaca com disfunção sistólica ventricular da que tem fracção de ejecção normal Revimos, à luz do conhecimento actual, o desempenho dos diferentes exames complementares, nomeadamente dos peptídeos natriuréticos e da ecocardiografia, no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca sintomática global, por disfunção sistólica ventricular e com fracção de ejecção normal e discutimos os critérios mais recentemente propostos e as últimas Recomendações internacionais Discutimos as estratégias propostas para o rastreio da disfunção ventricular assintomática que é, na comunidade, pelo menos tão frequente quanto a sintomática. Existe evidência de que tratar precocemente a disfunção ventricular sistólica assintomática se traduz em benefícios reais no prognóstico e, tal como no caso da disfunção sistólica sintomática, é custo-eficiente. Autilização do método padrão para o rastreio da disfunção cardíaca na população obrigaria à realização de ecocardiograma a todos os indivíduos, o que é técnica e economicamente incomportável. Vários estudos têm vindo a testar diversas estratégias alternativas, na procura de uma metodologia que seja, também ela, custo-eficiente. Os autores são unânimes no aspecto em que nenhum exame, quando avaliado isoladamente, foi útil para o rastreio da disfunção cardíaca. Contudo apontam para o ECG e/ou os peptídeos natriuréticos, integrados ou não em esquemas de pontuação clínica, como testes úteis para o pré-rastreio para ecocardiografia. Permitem diminuir os pedidos de ecocardiograma e os custos do rastreio, que se torna tão custo-efectivo quanto o do cancro da mama ou do colo do útero. Alguns autores preconizam ainda a avaliação qualitativa da disfunção cardíaca por ecocardiograma portátil, no contexto de ECG anómalo ou de peptídeo natriurético elevado, antes da referenciação para o ecocardiograma completo. Apontam esta estratégia como sendo a mais custo-eficiente para o rastreio da disfunção cardíaca. Finalmente, tecemos alguns comentários finais quanto a perspectivas de futuro para o manejo da insuficiência cardíaca. É premente estabelecer uma definição precisa e universal da síndrome e critérios de diagnóstico consensuais, claros, objectivos, simples e reprodutíveis para todo o espectro da insuficiência cardíaca, para que possamos num futuro próximo avaliar de forma correcta a extensão do problema, organizar cuidados médicos eficientes e acessíveis a todos e melhorar o prognóstico dos doentes, numa política imprescindível e inevitável de contenção dos custos. Perante os problemas de diagnóstico da síndrome no ambulatório, consideramos ser necessário implementar programas de formação continuada e facilitar o diálogo e a colaboração entre Cuidados Primários de Saúde e Unidades especializadas no manejo da doença, à imagem do que fizemos pontualmente aquando do programa EPICA e do que está a ser desenvolvido em vários países europeus e nos Estados Unidos da América, sob a forma de redes alargada de prestação de cuidados, para a insuficiência cardíaca. As clínicas de insuficiência cardíaca, a laborar sobretudo em meio hospitalar, já deram provas quanto à maior conformidade do diagnóstico (e tratamento) de acordo com as Recomendações, assim como na melhoria da qualidade de vida e sobrevida dos doentes. No artigo 17 - Implementar as Recomendações na prática clínica: benefícios de uma Unidade de Insuficiência Cardíaca Aguda - relatamos a nossa experiência quanto à melhoria da qualidade dos cuidados prestados, nas áreas do diagnóstico e tratamento, numa unidade funcional dedicada ao internamento dos doentes com insuficiência cardíaca aguda. Defendemos que estas áreas específicas de internamento se devem articular com outras,nomeadamente hospitais de dia de insuficiência cardíaca, podendo ou devendo até ser diferentes na sua estrutura e recursos, de acordo com as necessidades das populações no seio das quais são implementadas. Cabe-lhes um papel determinante na interacção com os Cuidados Primários de Saúde, na formação médica continuada e de outros profissionais de saúde e na recepção e orientação dos doentes referenciados para a especialidade.São ainda necessários esforços redobrados para a identificação e controlo dos factores de risco e para o estabelecimento de estratégias de rastreio da disfunção ventricular na comunidade. Tal é passível de ser feito e é custo-eficiente, mas exige a colaboração de técnicos de saúde, investigadores e poder político para avaliar das necessidades reais, implementar e controlar a qualidade destas estratégias, sem as quais não conseguiremos conter a epidemia. SUMMARY: Despite there has been substantial progress in the treatment of heart failure over the last several decades, it is the only cardiovascular disorder that continues to increase in both prevalence and incidence. Characterised by very poor survival and quality of life heart failure is responsible for among the highest healthcare costs for single conditions in developed countries. Heart failure is therefore becoming an increasing concern to healthcare worldwide and must be a priority to National Health Services. It is already called the epidemic of the 21 st century. A correct diagnosis is the cornerstone leading to effective management of the syndrome. An early, accurate and complete diagnosis has become crucial with the identification of therapies that can delay or reverse disease progression and improve both morbidity and mortality. Diagnostic methods may need to encompass screening strategies, as well as symptomatic case identification. Until now, investigation has been over focused on pharmacological treatment; relatively little work has been done on assessing diagnostic tools. This is actually a difficult condition to diagnose at all levels of care, and misdiagnosis must be the first barrier to the control of the epidemic. AIMS Considering current and up-dated knowledge and ourown experience we analyse the problems in diagnosing heart failure and cardiac dysfunction and how they affect patient’s clinical outcome and public health care. It was our aim to analyse how increasing knowledge about cardiac dysfunction influenced the concept of heart failure, its definition and diagnostic criteria; the problems resulting from the use of non consensual definitions and diagnostic criteria; the role of clinical data and diagnostic tests on the diagnosis of the syndrome and on the screening for cardiac dysfunction in the community; to discuss best strategies to enhance diagnostic management of heart failure in all its spectrum, in order to halt the epidemic in the near future. METHODS: The investigation on which the present dissertation is based was developed progressively, along the years, during our every-day clinical practice. Various original clinical investigations and review papers, related to challenges in heart failure management and especially to diagnosis, were presented in scientific meetings and/or published gradually as partial results were obtained. The EPICA Programme (epidemiology of heart failure and awareness), a large-scale epidemiological study on heart failure in Portugal, addressed as secondary endpoints, problems of heart failure misdiagnosis in primary care and the value of clinics and different diagnostic tests to confirme or refute the diagnosis of the syndrome suspected on clinical grounds. But problems on the diagnosis of heart failure are not confined to primary care. Therefore, under the auspices of the Working Group of Heart Failure of the Portuguese Society of Cardiology, a survey on the management of heart failure at hospital was addressed to the heads of Portuguese Cardiology and Internal Medicine Wards. Compliance with Guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of heart failure, perceived difficulties and requests to a better management of the syndrome were ascertained. We have then explored the validity of a coded diagnosis of heart failure at death/discharge from the Department of Medicine of S. Francisco Xavier Hospital, and the rate of misdiagnosis. Gains on compliance with Guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of heart failure, before and after the implementation of an acute heart failure unit in this Department were assessed. We also compared the performance of type-B natriuretic peptides – BNP and NT-proBNP – on systolic and diastolic heart failure diagnosis, in order to implement the more adequate test. In this thesis we discuss our published papers against the state of the art on heart failure diagnosis, and actual consequences of misdiagnosing. We revisit the accuracy of the different diagnostic testes to a definite diagnosis of the disease. Finally we analyse the different ways of screening for cardiac TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 309 310 Summary dysfunction and the more cost-efficient strategies to enhance heart failure diagnosis and management. RESULTS Since 1982, at the very beginning of our clinical activity, already aware of the complexity of the management of heart failure, we were involved in the development of an original pathophysiological heart failure classification, theme of Professor Fátima Ceia Doctoral Thesis discussed in 1989. Paper 1 - Heart Failure. New pathophysiological approach to therapy – published in 1984, described heart failure as a systemic disease resulting from the interaction of the different compensatory mechanisms. We proposed a new dynamic, pathophysiological and aetiological approach to the diagnosis of heart failure syndromes, based on clinics and conventional non-invasive assessment with drug management implications. In 1994, in paper 2 – Heart failure and the physician - towards the XXI century – we discussed the way how the compensatory mechanisms interact, produce the different heart failure syndromes and affect the evolution of the disease. Changing definitions according to the knowledge of the pathophysiology of heart failure at that time were revisited. The need for a universally accepted definition leading to early and accurate diagnosis and treatment of the syndrome was pointed-out. We called for strategies to prevent heart failure. In an up-dated review titled: Heart failure: from pathophysiology to clinics – a model in constant evolution – we revisit the changing pathophysiological models of heart failure – cardio-renal, haemodynamic, neuro-hormonal and imuno-inflamatory models - and their influence on the definition of the syndrome. Traditional dicotomization of heart failure in systolic and diastolic dysfunction is discussed. Rather than being considered as separate diseases with a distinct pathophysiology, systolic and diastolic heart failure may be merely different clinical presentations within a phenotypic spectrum of one and the same disease. Implications for the definition and diagnosis of heart failure are self evident. In chapter II – The diagnosis of heart failure: problems and foreseeable consequences - we analyse epidemiological, clinical and financial consequences of non consensual definition and diagnostic criteria of heart failure for individual patients, Healthcare Systems and Public Health. Problems resulting from the absence of a universally accepted definition of heart failure are clearly illustrated by current epidemiological data and were revisited in paper 3 – Epidemiology of heart failure. In various epidemiological studies measured prevalence and incidence of the syndrome diverge significantly. This worrying variation is certainly more due to different definitions and used diagnostic criteria than true differences between populations. We faced these difficulties when we had to design the EPICA programme, a large population-based study where we had to define simple, effective and easy to obtain diagnostic criteria of heart failure, for the whole spectrum of the disease, in primary care setting. The problem grew when we focused on heart failure with normal ejection function where diagnostic criteria were far from consensual. Therefore large trials on heart failure with normal ejection fraction and consensual evidence-based Guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of diastolic heart failure are still missing. Paper 4 – Prevalence of heart failure in Portugal - presents the design of the EPICA Programme. The EPICA study was one of the first large epidemiological studies addressing the prevalence of global heart failure, in the community, according to the European Guidelines for the diagnosis of the syndrome. We had to define simple, precise echocardiographic criteria to confirm a suspected diagnosis of heart failure on clinical grounds, in all its spectrum. At that time, Guidelines for heart failure with normal ejection fraction where far from consensual and non applicable to the ambulatory. In paper 5 - Prevalence of heart failure in Southwestern Europe: the EPICA study - we reported the prevalence of heart failure in mainland Portugal. From 5434 attendants of primary care centres, representative of the Portuguese population above 25 years, 551 had heart failure, leading to a prevalence of global heart failure of 4.35%, increasing sharply with age in both genders; 1.36% had systolic dysfunction and 1.7% normal ejection fraction. TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 310 Summary 311 In paper 6 – Epidemiology of heart failure in primary care in Madeira: the EPICA-RAM study - we report an overall prevalence of heart failure of 4.69%, with systolic dysfunction in 0.76% and with a normal ejection fraction in 2.74% of the cases. Discrepancies in the prevalence of the different types of heart failure between mainland and Madeira are probably related to different Public Health Care organization. Both studies showed that only half of the patients with a suspected diagnosis of heart failure on clinical grounds had the diagnosis confirmed by objective evidence of cardiac dysfunction. It’s therefore probable that unnecessary drugs were prescribed to patients who didn’t need them while others, who would benefit, were not correctly treated for heart failure. Paper 7 – Diagnosis of heart failure in primary care – is a review of the state of the art of the diagnosis of heart failure in primary care setting. It focused on main challenges faced by primary care physicians, namely difficulties on the access to imaging and strategies to screen for cardiac dysfunction. General practitioners awareness and training on the diagnosis and treatment of the syndrome are crucial to halt the epidemic. But problems on the diagnosis of heart failure are not exclusive of primary care. Heart failure is the first cause of hospitalization of patients above 65 years in medical wards, and accounts for more than 70% of the costs with the syndrome. In paper 9 – Validity of a diagnosis of heart failure: implications of misdiagnosing – we reported a prevalence of heart failure in patients hospitalized in our Medicine Department, during a six month period, of 17%. The diagnosis was actually sub-coded at death /discharge. The accuracy of the death / discharge coded diagnosis was 72.2%; the syndrome was under-diagnosed in 21.1% of the cases and over-diagnosed in 8.3%. The discharge codes failed a significant percentage of heart failure cases, biased the actual burden of the syndrome and compromise the allocation of resources to manage in-hospital heart failure and to develop specialised programmes of interaction with primary care. In paper 8 – Treatment of heart failure in Portuguese hospitals: results of a questionnaire – everybody reported difficulties in the management of heart failure. Heads of Cardiology Wards needed more specialised physicians and nurses as well as specific heart failure units for the management of the syndrome, and Heads of Internal Medicine Wards demand more facilities, easier access to echocardiography, and support from heart failure specialised cardiologists. Difficulties in the diagnosis of heart failure at all levels of care, have huge epidemiological, clinical and economic consequences for the individual patient, National Health Services and Public Health. In chapter III, we revisit the relevance of a complete diagnosis of heart failure. An appraisal based on symptoms alone is clearly an incomplete and inaccurate representation of the severity of cardiovascular disease. Determination of cardiac status requires evaluation of composite etiologic, anatomic, and physiologic diagnoses. Functional class and comorbidities must complement the diagnosis, leading to the more appropriate and individualized treatment. Aware of the uncertainty of the diagnosis of heart failure in primary care setting and of the role of General Practitioners in the management of the syndrome, we have evaluated in pre-specified substudies of the EPICA programme, the accuracy of clinics and tests available to the diagnosis of heart failure in the community. Paper 10 – The diagnosis of heart failure in primary care: value of symptoms and signs – confirmed that symptoms and signs and clinical history have limited value in diagnosing heart failure when used alone. The signs and symptoms that best predicted a diagnosis of heart failure were those associated with more severe disease. Among current symptoms, the history of paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnoea (LR 35.5), orthopnea (LR 39.1) and dyspnoea when walking on the flat (LR 25.8) were associated with a diagnosis of heart failure. However, these symptoms were not frequent within this population (sensitivity < 36%). Jugular pressure > 6 cm with hepatic enlargement, and oedema of the lower limbs (LR 130.3), a ventricular gallop (LR 30.0), a heart rate above 110 bpm (LR 26.7), and rales (LR 23.3), were all associated with a diagnosis of heart failure but TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 311 312 Summary were infrequent findings (sensitivity < 10%). Prior use of digoxin (LR 24.9) and/or diuretics (LR 10.6), an history of coronary artery disease (LR 7.1) or of pulmonary oedema (LR 54.2) were also associated with a greater likelihood of having heart failure. In paper 11 – Aetiology, comorbidity and drug therapy of chronic heart failure in the real world: the EPICA substudy – aetiological features and therapy relevant comorbidities were analysed. Hypertension was the more frequent risk factor/aetiology of heart failure in the community in Portugal (about 80%). Thirty nine percent had an history of coronary artery disease, and 15% had atrial fibrillation. In paper 12 – The value of electrocardiogram and X-ray for confirming or refuting a suspected diagnosis of heart failure in the community – we reported that ECG and X-ray features are not sufficient to allow heart failure to be reliably predicted in the community. Twenty five percent of patients with heart failure had a normal ECG or chest X-ray. In paper 13 – Evaluation of the performance and concordance of clinical questionnaires for heart failure in the primary care – we compared the accuracy of seven clinical questionnaires and scores for the diagnosis of heart failure in the community, and their concordance. Concordance was good between most of the questionnaires. Their low sensibility impairs their usefulness as diagnostic instruments, but their high specificity (>90%) makes them useful for the identification of patients with symptoms and signs from non-cardiac cause. In paper 14 – Epidemiology of heart failure in mainland Portugal: new data from the EPICA study -characteristics of patients with a definite diagnosis of heart failure and of those in whom the diagnosis of heart failure suspected on clinical grounds was excluded (false positive) were compared. The laters were older, more frequently women, had excessive weight, and a history of coronary artery disease was less frequent. Clinics, ECG and chest X-ray could not distinguish patients with heart failure due to systolic dysfunction from those with normal ejection fraction. Considering the limited and costly access to echocardiography in the community we address in paper 15 - the diagnostic challenge of heart failure with preserved systolic function in primary care: an EPICA-RAM substudy. The performance of BNP as a predictor of a diagnosis of heart failure with preserved systolic function according to ESC Guidelines, left ventricular hypertrophy and dilated left atria by echocardiography was tested. BNP was a good predictor of a dilated left atria, but not of the diagnosis of heart failure with preserved systolic function or of left ventricular hypertrophy (AUC: 0.89, 0.56, and 0.54 respectively). We conclude that BNP measurement alone was not a suitable screening test for heart failure with normal ejection fraction in the community, at least in patients with no or mild symptoms.In paper 16 – Comparative value of BNP and NTproBNP on the diagnosis of heart failure – we first established normal values and cut-offs for our laboratory.Then we assess the diagnostic accuracy of both peptides for the in-hospital diagnosis of heart failure due to systolic dysfunction and with normal ejection fraction. BNP and NT-proBNP had an excellent and similar accuracy to the diagnosis of both types of symptomatic heart failure, but none could distinguish patients with systolic heart failure from those with normal ejection fraction. We revisited the role of the various tests on the diagnosis of heart failure with systolic dysfunction, and with normal ejection fraction and discussed the more recent International Guidelines. There is a great piece of evidence that early treatment of asymptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction is cost-effective. Therefore, several screening strategies were investigated. ECG and type B natriuretic peptides measurements, alone or as part of clinical scores, allowed cost-effective community-based screening for left ventricular systolic dysfunction, especially in high-risk subjects. A programme including hand-held echocardiography, following NT-proBNP or ECG pre-screening prior to traditional echocardiogram was the most cost-effective.Screening strategies for left ventricular dysfunction proved no more costly than existing screening programmes such as those for cervical or breast cancer. Conversely, as far as we know, there is no proven strategy to efficiently screen for diastolic dysfunction in the community.Finally we discuss perspectives for heart failure TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 312 Summary 313 management in the near future. Simple, reliable and consensual diagnostic procedures are crucial to evaluate the actual burden of the disease, to comply with Guidelines and to reduce healthcare utilisation and costs. As the management of the syndrome in primary care has been hampered by perceived difficulties in diagnosis, improving diagnostic skills is essential and remains a continuous challenge for primary care clinicians. Moreover, patients may require more investigations and treatments that may not be available or very familiar to General Practitioners. Shared care is therefore necessary. Disease management programmes when available and accessible, are the preferred choice to address this issue. This multidisciplinary model of care delivered in specialized heart failure clinics, heart failure day hospitals and many other heart failure care stru-ctures, have shown success in improving quality of life, and reducing morbi-mortality and costs. In paper 17 - Translating Guidelines into clinical practice: benefits of an acute heart failure unit - we report a better compliance with Guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of heart failure after the implementation of a specialized heart failure unit in our Internal Medicine Department. We defend the implementation of heart failure programme management networks to provide optimal care for both patients and health care providers. They may consist of different structures to better address the needs of the referred patient, the referral physician and the regional health care system, and should have a crucial role in transition between primary and secondary care. Managing heart failure requires resources across the entire spectrum of care. Strategies to prevent heart failure include both primary and secondary prevention, and should encompass risk factors control and screening strategies for cardiac dysfunction in the community. Screening for high risk patients and, at least, for patients with asymptomatic systolic dysfunction is cost effective. Therefore, to improve heart failure outcomes and halt the epidemic, this will require shared efforts from investigators, clinicians and politicians. Health care strategy with adequate funding are imperative for successfull heart failure management. RÉSUMÉ: L’insuffisance cardiaque, déjà appelée d’épidémie du XXIeme siècle, est un problème de Santé Publique partout en Europe. Malgré les immenses progrès faits dans le domaine du traitement, dans les deux dernières décennies, l’insuffisance cardiaque est parmi les maladies cardiovasculaires la seule dont l’incidence et prévalence ne cessent d’augmenter. Ses principales caractéristiques sont une mortalité très élevée -supérieure à celle de l’ensemble des cancers - et un impact économique considérable sur les Systèmes de Santé. La prise en charge des insuffisants cardiaques doit ainsi être envisagée comme une priorité absolue. Toutefois, et bien que la sévérité de la situation soit universellement reconnue, Gouvernements et Systèmes de Santé n’ont pris que très peu de mesures concrètes, visant à freiner l’épidémie qui ne cesse de croître. Nous pouvons aujourd’hui prévenir et, sinon guérir l’insuffisance cardiaque, du moins la traiter de façon à freiner la progression de la maladie, ainsi nous soyons capables de faire le diagnostique à temps. Toute attitude térapêutique présume un diagnostique précoce et complet de la situation, sans lequel nulle attitude correcte ne pourra être prise. OBJECTIFS: Nous nous proposons analyser les problèmes du diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque, à la lumière des connaissances actuelles et de notre propre expérience. Parmi les objectifs de ce travail, nous avons évalué la façon d’ont l’évolution des concepts d’insuffisance et de dysfonction cardiaque a influencé la définition et les critères de diagnostique, au cours des temps, et les conséquences du manque de consensus quant à la définition et aux critères de diagnostique pour les différentes phases d’évolution de la maladie. Nous avons discuté le rôle des symptômes, signaux et examens complémentaires dans le diagnostique de l'insuffisance cardiaque et dans les stratégies de screening de la dysfonction cardíaque. Finalement nous avons discuté quelques chemins et possibles stratégies à envisager pour la prise en charge de ces malades pour que, dans un future proche, nous soyons capables de mieux les traiter, mais aussi de mieux prévenir la maladie de façon à freiner l’épidémie. MÉTHODOLOGIE: La méthodologie utilisée pour ce travail dérive directement de l’expérience acquise dans la prise en charge des malades, et de l’investigation gérée par les difficultés perçues quant au diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque, au long des années. Quand de l’élaboration de l’étude EPICA née de la nécessité d’obtenir des données épidémiologiques nationales en ce qui concerne l’insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal, nous avons conçu, selon un dessin original, un protocole d’investigation qui nous a permis d’évaluer la qualité du diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque réalisé par les médecins de famille ainsi que le rôle des symptômes, des signaux, des données de l´histoire clinique, de l’électrocardiogramme e de la radiographie du thorax, dans le diagnostique de l’ insuffisance dans l’ambulatoire. Nous avons aussi investigué la qualité du diagnostique établi pendant l’hospitalisation. Nous avons déterminé la réelle prévalence de l’insuffisance cardíaque hospitalisée dans notre service au long de six mois et celle qui a été codifiée au moment de la sortie de l´hôpital. Nous avons encore comparé la qualité do diagnostique avant et après l’ouverture d’une unité d’insuffisance cardiaque et la performance des différents peptides natriurétiques dans le diagnostique du syndrome. Sous la forme de réponse à un questionnaire, qui leur a été adressé par le Groupe de Travail d’insuffisance cardiaque de la Société Portugaise de Cardiologie, sur la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque, les Directeurs des Services de Cardiologie et Médicine Interne de tout le Pays se sont prononcés sur à leurs difficultés, en ce qui concerne le diagnostique et le traitement de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Les résultats des investigations partielles ont été communiqués à la communauté scientifique et publiés dans les journaux de la spécialité, au long de ces dernières années. Cette dissertation est constituée par les papiers publiés et en publication auxquels nous avons additionné une révision de l’état actuel de l’art du diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque, ainsi q’une réflexion sur les 317 TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 317 318 Résumé conséquences des difficultés éprouvées au diagnostique de la maladie et sur la manière d’améliorer la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque.RÉSULTATS: En 1982, l’hors de notre début d’activité, nous avons eu très tôt la perception de la complexité de l’insuffisance cardiaque et du défi que constituait, pour les cliniciens, la prise en charge de ces malades. Nous avons participé au développement d’une classification physiopathologique originale qui a servi de base pour le doctorat de la Professeur Fátima Ceia en 1989. L’article 1 – Insuffisance cardiaque : nouveaux concepts physiopathologiques et leurs applications thérapeutiques – publié en 1984, nous décrivons déjà l’insuffisance cardiaque comme une maladie systémique, résultat de l’interaction des différents mécanismes de compensation de la dysfonction cardiaque. Nous proposons « une classification physiopathologique avec application thérapeutique » originale, où nous définissons les différents types d’insuffisance cardiaque et leurs caractéristiques cliniques, hémodynamiques, fonctionnelles et anatomiques et proposons un traitement individualisé d’accord avec la définition et le diagnostique de chacun de ces différents types d’insuffisance cardiaque. En 1994, l’article 2 – L’insuffisance cardiaque et le clinicien à la fin du XXème siècle – fait une description détaillée de comment les différents mécanismes de compensation interagissent, influencent l’évolution de la maladie, produisent les différents syndromes et justifient le choix du type de traitement. Nous discutons l’évolution de la définition de la maladie d’accord avec l’évolution de l’investigation et une meilleure connaissance de la physiopathologie de la dysfonction cardiaque. Nous soulignons la nécessité du diagnostique et du traitement précoces et quant urgent il est de développer des stratégies capables de prévenir la maladie. Les investigateurs défendent aussi l’existence d’un continu entre l’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale e celle qui s’accompagne de dysfonction systolique ventriculaire. Ce concept défend l’existence de plusieurs syndromes d’insuffisance cardiaque qui ne représenteront que des phénotypes différents d’une même maladie. Des nouvelles Recommandations pour le diagnostique et exclusion de l’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale / dysfonction diastolique surgissent. Nous revisitons ces nouveaux concepts dans le chapitre: L’insuffisance cardiaque: de la physiopathologie à la clinique - un modèle en constante évolution. Au chapitre II – Le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque: problèmes et conséquences prévisibles - nous analysons les conséquences du manque de critères de diagnostique consensuels pour l’insuffisance cardiaque au long de tout son spectre. Les difficultés avec le diagnostique se répercutent sur les résultats des grandes études épidémiologiques. Nous avons senti cette difficulté quand, lors de l’élaboration du programme EPICA – ÉPidémiologie de l’Insuffisance Cardiaque et Apprentissage - nous avons voulu définir les critères pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque de tous les types, applicables à l’ambulatoire et d’accord avec les Recommandations Internationales. L’article 3 - Épidémiologie de l’insuffisance cardiaque – analyse les conséquences des différentes définitions et critères de diagnostique utilisés dans les grandes études épidémiologiques qui, au long des années, ont publié des prévalences et incidences très variables de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Ce problème s’aggrave encore quand il s’agit de l’épidémiologie de l’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale ou dysfonction diastolique, ou des stratégies pour le screening de la dysfonction cardiaque asymptomatique, situations à définitions et critères encore moins consensuels. L’inexistence de Recommandations appuyées sur l’évidence, pour le traitement de l’insufisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale ou à dysfonction diastolique, est une autre des conséquences de ces difficultés. C’est ainsi que des différences de méthodologie, de définitions et de critères de diagnostique, plutôt que des différences réelles entre les populations, difficultent notre connaissance quant à la réelle surcharge que l’insuffisance cardiaque et la dysfonction cardiaque imposent au Système National de Santé. Il est ainsi difficile de prévoir les recours nécessaires, à attribuer à une situation qui est mal connue. L’ article 4 – Prévalence de l’insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal – présente le dessin des études EPICA et EPICA-RAM. EPICA a été l’une des premières études TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 318 Résumé 319 à évaluer la prévalence de l’insuffisance cardiaque symptomatique globale, de l’ambulatoire, suivant les Recommandations de la Société Européenne de Cardiologie pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Nous y définissons des critères echocardiographiques précis pour tous les types d’insuffisance cardiaque, notamment celle à fraction d’éjection normale, alors qu’à l’époque il n’y avait pas encore de Recommandations consensuelles pour le diagnostic de cette situation. L’article 5 – Prevalence of chronic heart failure in Southwestern Europe : the EPICA study - relate la prévalence de l’insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal continental en 1998. Dans une population de 5434 individus âgés de plus 25 ans, représentative de la population portugaise nous avons identifié 551 cas d’insuffisance cardiaque, correspondant à une prévalence de 4,3%, qui augmente avec l´âge, chez les deux genres ; chez 1,3% la dysfonction ventriculaire est systolique, alors que 1,75% ont une fraction d’éjection normale. L’article 6 – Epidemiology of chronic heart failure in Primary Care in the Autonomic Region of Madeira: the EPICA-RAM study – a suivi le même protocole d’investigation et relate une prévalence de l’insuffisance cardiaque globale de 4,69%, 0,76 % à dysfonction ventriculaire systolique et 2,74% à fraction d’éjection normale. Ces deux études confirment que quand le diagnostique est suspecté par la clinique il ne se confirme objectivement qu’en la moitié des cas, ce qui fait supposer que beaucoup de malades seront sous médication inappropriée pour l’insuffisance cardiaque alors que d’autres, qui auraient tout intérêt à la faire, en seront probablement privés. L’article 7 – Diagnosis of chronic heart failure in Primary Care - revoit l’état de l’art quant au diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans la communauté et discute les principaux défis auxquels les médecins de famille sont soumis, notamment les difficultés d’accès aux examens complémentaires de diagnostique et le screening de la dysfonction cardiaque asymptomatique dans la population en général. Mais les problèmes de diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque, se posent transversalement à tous les niveaux, à l’hôpital comme chez le médecin de famille. Bien que l’insuffisance cardiaque soit la première cause d’hospitalisation après les 65 ans, responsable pour la plupart des coûts consommés par le syndrome, le diagnostique y est sous-estimé. L’article 9 – Validity of a diagnosis of heart failure : implications of misdiagnosing – démontre que l’insuffisance cardiaque a été la première cause d’hospitalisation dans notre service, pendant une période de six mois, ayant une prévalence de 17% et a été largement sous codifiée. La sous codification du diagnostique ne fait que diminuer le vrai poids du syndrome, menant à l’allocation incorrecte de recours pour la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque à l´hôpital et pour l’établissement de programmes capables de faire l’indispensable interface avec l’ambulatoire. En réponse au questionnaire sur la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque, que nous résumons dans l’article 8 – Traitement de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans les hôpitaux portugais : résultats d’un questionnaire - les Directeurs des Services de Médicine Interne ont relaté leurs difficultés d’accès à l’échocardiographie en temps utile et réclamé plus de collaboration du cardiologue; les Directeurs des Services de Cardiologie demandent plus de spécialistes et de structures vocationnées pour le diagnostique et traitement de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Les difficultés posées par le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque à tous les niveaux de soins, entraînent des conséquences épidémiologiques, socioéconomiques et financières néfastes pour le patient, la planification du Système National de Santé et la Santé Publique. Au chapitre III nous rappelons l’importance du diagnostique complet de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Au diagnostique anatomique, fonctionnel et du syndrome, il faut absolument joindre l’étiologie, la classe fonctionnelle e les comorbidités qui conditionnent souvent l’interprétation des testes de diagnostique, le traitement et le pronostique. Conscients des difficultés éprouvées para les médecins de famille, pour diagnostiquer correctement et en temps utile l’insuffisance cardiaque dans l’ambulatoire, et du rôle de ces Spécialistes en ce qui concerne la contention de l’épidémie, nous nous sommes proposés, comme objectifs secondaires de l’étude EPICA,d’investiguer la performance des instruments de diagnostique disponibles et à portée de ces cliniciens. L’article 10 – The diagnosis of heart failure in primary TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 319 320 Résumé care: value of symptoms and signs – documente les limitations des symptômes, signaux et des données cliniques, quand utilisés de forme isolée, pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Ils sont tous peu sensibles et ceux qui ont la plus grande valeur prédictive sont ceux qui s’associent aux formes congestives, plus graves, de la maladie: la dyspnée paroxysmale nocturne (LR 35,5), l’orthopnée (LR 39,1), la difficulté respiratoire pendant la marche en plan horizontal (LR 25,8), l’ ingurgitation jugulaire > 6 cm accompagnée d’ hépatomégalie e d’oedème des membres inférieurs (LR 130,3), le galop ventriculaire (LR 30,0), la tachycardie >110ppm (LR 26,7) et les crépitations pulmonaires (LR 23,3) sont ainsi associés au diagnostique, mais sont très peu fréquents chez les insuffisants cardiaques tout venant de l’ambulatoire. Un traitement antérieur avec du diurétique (LR 10,6) ou de la digoxine (LR 24,9), ou encore un épisode antérieur d’oédeme pulmonaire aigu (LR 54,2), sont d’autres prédicteurs du diagnostique. L’article 11 – Aetiology, comorbidity and drug therapy of chronic heart failure in the real world: the EPICA substudy – confirme que l´hypertension artérielle est, d’entre tous les facteurs de risque, la principale étiologie de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans l’ambulatoire au Portugal (80%). Trente neuf pourcent des malades inclus dans l’étude EPICA avaient une histoire de maladie coronarienne et 15% de fibrillation auriculaire. Nous avons encore analysé la comorbidité et son influence sur la prescription, en sachant que la prescription des médicaments recommandés pour l’insuffisance cardiaque est, au Portugal comme d’une forme générale en Europe, bien inférieur au désirable. L’article 12 - The value X- ray for confirming or refuting a suspected diagnosis of heart failure in the community – démontre que les données de l’électrocardiogramme e de la radiographie du thorax, par sois même, ne prédisent pas correctement le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans l’ambulatoire; 25% des insuffisants cardiaques inclus dans EPICA avaient un électrocardiogramme où une radiographie du thorax normal. Al’article 13 - Evaluation of the performance and concordance of clinical questionnaires for heart failure in primary care – nous avons comparé sept questionnaires ou scores cliniques habituellement utilisés pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans les grandes études épidémiologiques et de médicaments. Ils ont démontré avoir une concordance à peine raisonnable à bonne entre eux, et être très spécifiques (>90%) pour le diagnostique mais peu sensibles. Ils augmentent la probabilité du diagnostique de 4,3% prétest vers 25 à 30% post-test et se révèlent ainsi des instruments plus utiles dans l’exclusion d’une cause cardiaque pour les symptômes que pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque. L’article 14 – Épidémiologie de l’insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal continental : nouvelles données de l’étude EPICA – compare les caractéristiques des malades qui, ayant une clinique compatible avec le syndrome, ont été inclus dans EPICA mais n’avaient pas de dysfonction cardiaque objective (faux positifs), avec ceux qui ont eu leur diagnostique objectivement confirmé. Les premiers étaient plus âgés, il y avait plus de femmes, plus de poids excessif, moins de maladie coronarienne. L’investigation confirme encore que les données de l’électrocardiogramme e de la radiographie du torax ne distinguent pas les insuffisants cardiaques qui ont une dysfonction systolique ventriculaire de ceux qui ont une fraction d’éjection normale. Face au défi du diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale, aux difficultés d’accès à l’échocardiographie dans l’ambulatoire, au prix de l’examen et aux critères encore peu consensuels pour le diagnostique de cette situation, nous avons analysé et publié à l’article 15 – The diagnostic challenge of heart failure with preserved systolic function in primary care setting: an EPICA-RAM substudy - la valeur des peptides natriurétiques du type B, NTproBNP, comme test de triage des malades qui, parmi ceux qui présentent une clinique compatible avec le syndrome, devront confirmer objectivement le diagnostique par échocardiographie. Ainsi, nous avons évalué la performance du test comme prédicteur : du diagnostique d’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale, selon les Recommandations internationales, d’hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche et de dilatation de l’auricule gauche. Le NT-proBNP n’à été bon prédicteur que de ce dernier paramètre, ce qui nous fait conclure que le test ne permet pas de trier les malades de façon à diminuer les nécessités d’échocardiographie face à une hypothèse clinique d’insuffisance cardiaque, du moins en ce qui concerne les cas peu évolués, fréquemment asymptomatiques, de TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 320 Résumé 321 l’ambulatoire. Nous avons aussi comparé la performance des peptides natriurétiques du type B - BNP et NT-proBNP – quant au diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque symptomatique à dysfonction ventriculaire systolique et à fraction d’éjection normale, traitée à l’hôpital. Les résultats de cette investigation sont révélés dans l’article 16 – Comparative value of BNP and NT-proBNP for the diagnosis of heart failure. Les deux tests ont démontré une performance excelente et comparable dans le diagnostique du syndrome, mais aucun n’a été capable de distinguer les deux types d’insuffisance cardiaque. Nous avons revu et discuté l’état de l’art quant au rôle des différents examens complémentaires, notamment des peptides natriurétiques et de l’échocardiographie, dans le diagnostique des différents types d’insuffisance et de dysfonction cardiaque, ainsi que les toutes dernières Recommandations internationales. Nous avons analysé les stratégies proposées pour le screening de la dysfonction ventriculaire asymptomatique, qui est au moins aussi fréquente dans l’ambulatoire que l’insuffisance cardiaque symptomatique. Par ailleurs, l’évidence montre que le traitement précoce de la dysfonction ventriculaire asymptomatique, est efficace et diminue les coûts. Le gold standard pour le screening de la dysfonction ventriculaire imposerait la réalisation d’un échocardiogramme à toute la population, ce qui est incomportable. Plusieurs stratégies ont été investiguées, ces dernières années, à la recherche de celle qui sera la plus efficace tout en épargnant le plus possible. Tous affirment que aucun examen isolé ne pourra être suffisant pour ce screening. Par contre, l’électrocardiogramme et/ou les peptides natriurétiques, incorporés ou non en scores cliniques, sont souvent évoqués comme testes efficaces pour le pré-screening des patients à envoyer à l’échocardiographie. Son utilisation diminue le nombre ’échocardiogrammes nécessaires et la dépense, tout en étant au moins aussi efficace que le screening du cancer du sein ou du colle de l’utérus, exige un investissement qui n’est en rien supérieur. Quelques auteurs ont démontré que l'exécution d’un échocardiogramme qualitatif, fait avec un échocardiographe portable, après l’ECG ou la détermination du BNP/ NT-proBNP et avant l’échocardiogramme complet, améliore encore la stratégie pour le screening de la dysfonction cardiaque. Finalement nous terminons avec quelques commentaires concernant les perspectives futures pour la prise en charge de l’insuffisanc e cardiaque. Il est absolument urgent et primordial d’établir d’une définition précise et universelle, ainsi que de critères de diagnostique objectifs, simples et reproductibles, applicables à tout le spectre de l’insuffisance cardiaque, de façon à ce que, dans un futur proche, nous soyons capables de connaître le véritable poids de l’insuffisance cardiaque, d’organiser une prise en charge le plus efficace possible tout en respectant l’inévitable contention des dépenses publiques. Les problèmes de diagnostique de l’ambulatoire exigent que les médecins de famille disposent de programmes de formation continus et que le dialogue avec l’hôpital et les spécialistes soit facilité, tel que nous l’avons fait, de forme programmée, systématiquement,pendant le programme EPICA. Les cliniques d’insuffisance cardiaque et les programmes structurés de prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque ont démontré leur efficacité. Ils permettent une meilleure implémentation des Recommandations de diagnóstique et traitement, améliorent la qualité de vie et la survie des insuffisants cardiaques qui y sont suivis. Dans l’article 17 - Translating Guidelines into clinical practice : benefits of an acute heart failure unit - nous rendons compte de notre expérience en ce qui concerne les gains obtenus quant au diagnostic et traitement des insuffisants cardiaques hospitalisés dans notre service avant et après l’ouverture d’une unité d’insuffisance cardiaque et qui nous a permi d’amelliorer la qualité des soins prêtés à ces malades. Nous défendons que ces unités spécialement vocationnées pour la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque doivent se multiplier, s’intégrer en programmes plus vastes d’organisation de soins à prêter aux insuffisants cardiaques, qui incluent notamment l´hôpital de jour et adopter des structures variables d’accord avec les nécessités des populations qu’elles servent. Ces programmes de prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque pourront assumer un rôle déterminant dans la formation scientifique des médecins, spécialement des médecins de famille, dans l’interface entre les soins primaires et l’hôpital et dans la référentiation des insuffisants cardiaques. Tous les efforts pour identifier et corriger précocement les facteurs de risque cardiovasculaire et développer TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 321 Résumé des stratégies pour le screening de la dysfonction cardiaque doivent être multipliés comme stratégies de prévention. Tout cela est possible, efficace à un pris semblable à celui d’autres programmes déjà en cours, mais exige la collaboration de tous, population, professionnels de santé, investigateurs et pouvoir politique qui viabilise l’évaluation des nécessités, le montage de ces programmes multidisciplinaires, et en contrôle la qualité, de façon à ce que très vite nous puissions contrôler cette épidémie.

Alteração do paradigma da gestão dos cuidados à pessoa com infecção VIH : um modelo centrado nos cuidados de saúde primários

RESUMO - A infecção por VIH é reconhecida mundialmente como um problema de saúde pública, apesar de todos os esforços e recursos despendidos e dos avanços científicos conseguidos nos últimos anos. Portugal, apesar do registo da diminuição de novos casos de infecção VIH, encontra-se no 4.º lugar (dos países da União Europeia) em termos de incidência de infecção por VIH (dados de 2008). Esta situação, juntamente com a crescente constatação dos custos elevados para o tratamento desta infecção, da variabilidade de práticas e a fragmentação dos cuidados, motivou a reflexão sobre modelos alternativos de organização de cuidados, inspirados em modelos de gestão da doença e idealmente centrados nos cuidados de saúde primários. O presente trabalho teve como objectivos analisar os modelos de organização de cuidados prestados à pessoa com VIH, nos países desenvolvidos, a nível dos cuidados de saúde primários e compreender o nível de adequação dos resultados encontrados, para a realidade portuguesa. Para os alcançar foi realizada uma revisão da literatura e a realização de entrevistas a profissionais de saúde. Nos artigos analisados na revisão da literatura, verificou-se consenso em torno de um modelo baseado em cuidados partilhados, entre os prestadores primários e os diferenciados. Foram ainda referenciados múltiplos factores e condições que terão de ser assegurados para uma possível implementação do modelo. Quanto aos entrevistados verificou-se uma opinião favorável em relação ao modelo de cuidados partilhados, mostrando-se expectantes e despertos para a necessidade de mudança, perspectivando uma maior integração do actual estado de organização dos cuidados para a pessoa com VIH. Estes indícios reflectem a relevância de maior investigação sobre o modelo de cuidados partilhados.

Profil de pratique des médecins omnipraticiens en santé mentale au Québec

Au Québec, face à la prévalence élevée des problèmes de santé mentale et à la pénurie de médecins psychiatres, le médecin omnipraticien (MO) occupe une place primordiale dans la prise en charge et le suivi des soins de santé mentale. Dans le contexte de réforme du système de santé mentale axée sur un renforcement de la collaboration entre les MO, les psychiatres et les équipes de santé mentale, notre étude vise à mieux comprendre la pratique clinique et la pratique collaborative développée par les MO, leur appréciation des outils de travail et de la qualité des services de santé mentale, dans le but d’améliorer la complémentarité des soins au niveau primaire. Cette étude transversale impliquait 1415 MO de neuf territoires de centre de santé et de services sociaux (CSSS) du Québec. L’échantillon final était constitué de 398 MO représentatifs de lieux de pratique diversifiés et le taux de réponse était de 41%. Nos résultats mettent en évidence que la pratique clinique et la pratique collaborative des MO diffère selon le degré de gravité des problèmes de santé mentale des patients rencontrés, c’est à dire, trouble transitoire/modéré de santé mentale (TTM.SM) ou trouble grave de santé mentale (TG.SM), et que les MO sont favorables au fait de travailler en collaboration avec les autres professionnels de la santé mentale. Ainsi, il apparaît important de renforcer l’accessibilité des MO aux professionnels de la santé mentale, particulièrement les psychiatres, et de les informer de l’existence des autres acteurs en santé mentale sur leur territoire, pour renforcer la collaboration et la qualité des soins primaires de santé mentale.

Diferencias en costo efectividad del cuidado paliativo domiciliario frente a la atención convencional hospitalaria para el manejo de enfermedades crónicas en fase terminal

En Colombia la dinámica poblacional ha experimentado cambios a través de los años; lo cual modifica las características epidemiológicas y los perfiles de morbimortalidad de la población, aumentando la incidencia y prevalencia de enfermedades crónicas de difícil pronóstico dentro de la población; siendo estos grupos etarios hacía quienes deben destinarse nuevas modalidades de atención y soporte paliativo. Se realizó una revisión sistemática de diversos artículos, clasificados con niveles de evidencia I y II; cuyas variables de análisis fueron: El lugar de fallecimiento del paciente, alivio de la sintomatología, nivel de satisfacción del paciente y sus cuidadores con los servicios recibidos, número de ingresos hospitalarios independientemente de la causa y días promedio de estancia hospitalaria. El 88% de los pacientes que fueron vinculados a la atención domiciliaria falleció en su hogar; el 68% refirió haber experimentado disminución en la intensidad de al menos 2 síntomas como resultado de la atención en casa. El nivel de satisfacción para el cuidado en casa puntuó 19 puntos porcentuales por encima de la calificación que obtuvo el manejo hospitalario. El 23% de los pacientes tratados en su hogar, requirió al menos una hospitalización durante el manejo; mostrando una disminución en el tiempo de estancia hospitalaria de 3.4 días promedio. El manejo paliativo domiciliario de pacientes crónicos en fase terminal, no sólo es una alternativa en la reducción de costos para el sistema de salud, sino que es un factor protector de tipo emocional que refleja también una importante disminución de los riesgos de la hospitalización.

Icke-följsamhet vid diabetes mellitus : en litteraturstudie

Syftet med föreliggande studie var att beskriva vad personer med diabetes anser inverka på deras möjlighet och vilja att följa egenvårdsråd (patientperspektivet) och att beskriva omvård-nad som stöder följsamhet (sjukvårdsperspektivet). Studien har genomförts som en litteratur-studie. Det visade sig att alla krav för att hålla sjukdomen under kontroll innebär livsstilsför-ändringar, som kan vara så utmanande för patienten, att han kanske inte kan eller vill vidta dessa. Bristande kunskap om sjukdomen och om dess egenvårdskrav kan göra honom dåligt emotionellt anpassad till denna, det vill säga han har inte accepterat att han har sjukdomen och han vill inte låta dess egenvårdskrav inkräkta på det sociala livet. Detta ger honom för-sämrade möjligheter att hantera sjukdomen på ett bra sätt. Barriärer av olika slag kan uppstå mellan patient och vårdgivare. Det kan röra sig om en upplevd brist på information och stöd när diabetes diagnosticerats eller en känsla av att vara utsatt för läkarens eller sjuksköterskans stereotypa föreställningar och/eller att bli paternalistiskt behandlad. Till barriärer räknas även klinisk misskötsel, det vill säga att läkare/sjuksköterska inte följer vedertagna riktlinjer för be-handling.Vad som kan inverka positivt på följsamheten är patientens stöd av anhöriga eller andra i det sociala nätverket. Omvårdnad som stöder följsamhet visade sig varapatientundervisning, främst om den inriktades på att öka patientens självständighet genom att låta undervisningen pågå under en längre tid, så att patienten hinner integrera sin nya kunskap med det dagliga livet. Med eller utan patientundervisning tar det tid att bygga upp ett socialt stöd och ett förtroende mellan patient och vårdare.

Fatores envolvidos no comportamento em higiene bucal e hábitos alimentares de crianças: revisão de literatura

The family is primarily responsible for shaping behavior in oral hygiene and nutrition of children, and cultural and psychosocial factors can influence this process. Thus, we carried out this study with the aim of presenting evidence from the literature on the subject. We reviewed the databases Bireme, Pubmed and Medline without restriction of year of publication. Used as descriptors "education," "care," "behavior," "oral health" and "food habits". We emphasize the responsibility of the family practices, values and beliefs of oral health and nutrition as well as the importance of shared care between family and professionals.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia: a consensus statement on diagnostic and treatment approaches in children

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is associated with abnormal ciliary structure and function, which results in retention of mucus and bacteria in the respiratory tract, leading to chronic oto-sino-pulmonary disease, situs abnormalities and abnormal sperm motility. The diagnosis of PCD requires the presence of the characteristic clinical phenotype and either specific ultrastructural ciliary defects identified by transmission electron microscopy or evidence of abnormal ciliary function. Although the management of children affected with PCD remains uncertain and evidence is limited, it remains important to follow-up these patients with an adequate and shared care system in order to prevent future lung damage. This European Respiratory Society consensus statement on the management of children with PCD formulates recommendations regarding diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in order to permit a more accurate approach in these patients. Large well-designed randomised controlled trials, with clear description of patients, are required in order to improve these recommendations on diagnostic and treatment approaches in this disease.