951 resultados para Romana, Severa, - 1900
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O texto discute os muitos significados dados morte de duas mulheres dos grupos menos abastados em Belm do Par. Tais mulheres foram assassinadas em momentos distintos e tiveram a histria de suas vidas e de suas mortes evocada por literatos, estudiosos da regio e na imprensa paraense, como um exemplo a ser seguido por outras mulheres, revelando ideais de fidelidade, casamento, de famlia, entre outros. Se ainda hoje a fora dessas histrias vem tona com significados diversos, no passado no foi diferente sugerindo os muitos sentidos dados a suas vidas e a suas mortes.
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UANL
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Se presenta la tesis doctoral, titulada TRANS Arquitectura. Imaginacin, Invencin e individuacin del objeto tecnico arquitectnico. Transferencia tecnolgica desde la Industria del Transporte al Proyecto de Arquitectura [1900-1973]', que aborda la relacin entre la Arquitectura y el Objeto Tcnico durante la Modernidad.1 La temtica de la tesis gravita en torno a la cultura tcnica, la cultura material y la historia de la Tecnologa del siglo XX. Hiptesis Se sostiene aqu la existencia de unas arquitecturas que se definen como Objetos Tcnicos. Para demostrarlo se estudia si stas comparten las mismas propiedades ontolgicas de los objetos tcnicos. Industria y Arquitectura La historia de la Arquitectura Moderna es la historia de la Industria Moderna y sus instalaciones industriales, sus productos y artefactos o sus procedimientos y procesos productivos. Fbricas, talleres, aceras, astilleros, minas, refineras, laboratorios, automviles, veleros, aviones, dirigibles, transbordadores, estaciones espaciales, electrodomsticos, ordenadores personales, telfonos mviles, motores, bateras, turbinas, aparejos, cascos, chassis, carroceras, fuselajes, composites, materiales sintticos, la cadena de montaje, la fabricacin modular, la cadena de suministros, la ingeniera de procesos, la obsolescencia programada Todos estos objetos tcnicos evolucionan constantemente gracias al inconformismo de la imaginacin humana, y como intermediarios que son, cambian nuestra manera de relacionarnos con el mundo. La Arquitectura, al igual que otros objetos tcnicos, media entre el hombre y el mundo. Con el objetivo de reducir el mbito tan vasto de la investigacin, ste se ha filtrado a partir de varios parmetros y cualidades de la Industria, estableciendo un marco temporal, vinculado con un determinado modo de hacer, basado en la ciencia. El inicio del desarrollo industrial basado en el conocimiento cientfico se da desde la Segunda Revolucin Industrial, por consenso en el ltimo tercio del siglo XIX. Este marco centra el foco de la tesis en el proceso de industrializacin experimentado por la Arquitectura desde entonces, y durante aproximadamente un siglo, recorriendo la Modernidad durante los 75 primeros aos del siglo XX. Durante este tiempo, los arquitectos han realizado transferencias de imgenes, tcnicas, procesos y materiales desde la Industria, que ha servido como fuente de conocimiento para la Arquitectura, y ha evolucionado como disciplina. Para poder abordar ms razonablemente un periodo tan amplio, se ha elegido el sector industrial del transporte, que histricamente ha sido, no slo fuente de inspiracin para los Arquitectos, sino tambin fuente de transferencia tecnolgica para la Arquitectura. Conjuntos tcnicos como los astilleros, fbricas de automviles o hangares de aviones, individuos tcnicos como barcos, coches o aviones, y elementos tcnicos como las estructuras que les dan forma y soporte, son todos ellos objetos tcnicos que comparten propiedades con las arquitecturas que aqu se presentan. La puesta en marcha de la cadena mvil de montaje en 1913, se toma instrumentalmente como primer foco temporal desde el que relatar la evolucin de numerosos objetos tcnicos en la Primera Era de la Mquina; un segundo foco se sita en 19582, ao de la creacin de la Agencia Espacial norteamericana (NASA), que sirve de referencia para situar la Segunda Era de la Mquina. La mayora de los objetos tcnicos arquitectnicos utilizados para probar la hiptesis planteada, gravitan en torno a estas fechas, con un rango de ms menos 25 aos, con una clara intencin de sincronizar el tiempo de la accin y el tiempo del pensamiento. Arquitectura y objeto tcnico Los objetos tcnicos han estado siempre relacionados con la Arquitectura. En el pasado, el mismo tcnico que proyectaba y supervisaba una estructura, se ocupaba de inventar los ingenios y mquinas para llevarlas a cabo. Los maestros de obra, eran verdaderos agentes de transferencia tecnolgica de la Industria y su conocimiento relacionaba tcnicas de fabricacin de diferentes objetos tcnicos. Brunelleschi invent varia gras para construir la cpula de Santa Maria dei Fiori (ca.1461), seguramente inspirado por la reedicin del tratado de Vitruvio, De Architectura (15 A.C.), cuyo ltimo captulo estaba dedicado a las mquinas de la arquitectura clsica romana, y citaba a inventores como Archimedes. El arquitecto florentino fue el primero en patentar un invento en 1421: una embarcacin anfibia que servira para transportar mrmol de Carrara por el ro Arno, para su obra en Florencia. J. Paxton. Crystal Palace. London 1851. Viga-columna. Robert McCormick. Cosechadora 1831. 2 patente, 1845. La Segunda Revolucin Industrial nos dej un primitivo ejemplo moderno de la relacin entre la Arquitectura y el objeto tcnico. El mayor edificio industrializado hasta la fecha, el Crystal Palace de Londres, obra de Joseph Paxton, fue montado en Londres con motivo de la Gran Exposicin sobre la Industria Mundial de 1851, y siempre estar asociado a la cosechadora McCormick, merecedora del Gran Premio del Jurado. De ambos objetos tcnicos, podran destacarse caractersticas similares, como su origen industrial, y ser el complejo resultado de un ensamblaje simple de elementos tcnicos. Desde la entonces, el desarrollo tecnolgico ha experimentado una aceleracin continuada, dando lugar a una creciente especializacin y separacin del conocimiento sobre las tcnicas antes naturalmente unidas. Este proceso se ha dado a expensas del conocimiento integrador y en detrimento de la promiscuidad entre la Industria y la Arquitectura. Este es, sin lugar a dudas, un signo consustancial a nuestro tiempo, que provoca un natural inters de los arquitectos y otros tecnlogos, por las transferencias, trans e inter-disciplinareidades que tratan de re-establecer los canales de relacin entre los diferentes campos del conocimiento. La emergencia de objetos tcnicos como los vehculos modernos a principios del siglo XX (el automvil, el trasatlntico, el dirigible o el aeroplano) est relacionada directamente con la Arquitectura de la Primera Era de la Mquina. La fascinacin de los arquitectos modernos por aquellas nuevas estructuras habitables, se ha mantenido durante ms de un siglo, con diferente intensidad y prestando atencin a unos objetos tcnicos u otros, oscilando entre el dominio del valor simblico de los vehculos como objetosimgenes, durante el periodo heroico de la Primera Era de la Mquina, y la mirada ms inquisitiva durante la Segunda, que persegua un conocimiento ms profundo de la organizacin de los mismos y del sistema tcnico en el que estaban incluidos. La relacin homloga que existe entre arquitecturas y vehculos, por su condicin de estructuras habitables, es algo de sobra conocido desde que Le Corbusier utilizara aquellas imgenes de barcos, coches y aviones para ilustrar su manifiesto Vers une architecture, de 1923. Los vehculos modernos han sido los medios con los que transmitir los conceptos que ansiaban transformar las propiedades tradicionales de la Arquitectura, relativas a su factura, su habitabilidad, su duracin, su funcionalidad o su esttica. Destaca particularmente el caso del automvil en las dcadas de los aos 30 y 50, y los vehculos del programa espacial en las dcadas de los 60 y 70. El conocimiento y la documentacin previa de estos hechos, fueron un buen indicio para identificar y confirmar que el sector industrial del transporte, era un especialmente trascendente y frtil proveedor de casos de transferencia tecnolgica para la Arquitectura. La tradicin Moderna inaugurada por Le Corbusier en los aos 20, ha sido mantenida y defendida por una multitud de arquitectos modernos como Albert Frey, Richard Neutra, Ralph Soriano, Charles Eames o Craig Ellwood, cuyo trabajo, animado por el legado de anteriores tecnlogos como Bucky Fuller o Jean Prouv, fue fundamental y referencia obligada para la siguiente generacin de arquitectos como Cedric Price, Archigram, Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Jean Kaplicky o Richard Horden, entre otros. Todos ellos han contribuido a engrosar el imaginario del objeto tcnico, aportando sus obras arquitectnicas. Estos arquitectos que aparecen repetidamente en el discurrir de la tesis, pertenecen a un mismo linaje, y son agrupados segn una estructura genealgica, que se ha denominado Estirpe Tcnica. Unidos por intereses comunes y similares enfoques o actitudes ante el proyecto de arquitectura, entendida como objeto Tcnico, han operado mediante la prctica de la transferencia tecnolgica, sin limitarse a las tcnicas compositivas propias de la disciplina arquitectnica. Durante la investigacin, se ha recopilado una seleccin de menciones explcitas -hechas por arquitectos- sobre otros objetos tcnicos para referirse a la Arquitectura, mostrando las constantes y las variaciones de sus intereses a lo largo del siglo, lo que nos ha llevado a conclusiones como por ejemplo, que los conjuntos tcnicos (fbricas de zepelines, aviones, automviles o trasatlnticos) eran tomados por los arquitectos de la primera Modernidad, como un modelo imaginario, formal y compositivo, mientras que los de la Segunda Era de la Mquina los tomaban como modelo espacial y organizativo para la arquitectura. La mencionada estirpe de tecnlogos incluye lneas de descendencia conocidas, como: EiffelSuchovBehrens GropiusMiesLeCorbusierLodsProuve, en la Europa continental, o una rama britnica como: LoudonPaxtonWilliamsStirlingGowan SmithsonsPriceArchigramFosterRogersPiano KaplickyHorden. Tambin podemos encontrar conexiones intercontinentales como Fuller EamesRudolphFosterRogers, o ramificaciones menos previsibles como: LeRicolaisKahn PianoKaplicky, o LeCorbusierFreyLacaton Vassal Seguramente muchos ms mereceran incluirse en esta lista, y de hecho, la tesis asume la imposibilidad de incluirlo todo (por motivos prcticos) aunque contempla la posibilidad de ser ampliada en un futuro. Con lo aqu incluido, se pretende mostrar la continuidad en los enfoques, planteamientos y tcnicas de proyectos aplicadas, de los que podemos deducir algunas conclusiones, como por ejemplo, que en los periodos inmediatamente posteriores a las dos Guerras Mundiales, aument la intensidad de aportaciones de nuevas imgenes de vehculos, al imaginario del objeto tcnico utilizado por los arquitectos, a travs de publicaciones y exposiciones. Hoy, cien aos despus de que Ford pusiera en marcha la cadena mvil de montaje, an encontramos viva esta tradicin en las palabras de un arquitecto, Richard Horden, cuyo trabajo porta consigo como la informacin embebida en los elementos tcnicos- toda una cultura tcnica de una tradicin moderna. Horden representa uno de los exponentes de la que he denominado estirpe de tecnlogos. Es por ello que he querido concluir la tesis con una entrevista, realizada en Mayo de 2015, en su estudio de Berkeley Square en Londres (ver Apndices). Guas Para el desarrollo de la presente tesis, se ha tomado, como principal obra de referencia, otra tesis, titulada El modo de existencia de los objetos tcnicos, leda y publicada en 1958 por el filsofo francs Gilbert Simondon [1924-89], dedicada a la ontologa del objeto tcnico. Esta obra enmarca el enfoque intelectual de la tesis, que entronca con la fenomenologa, para movilizar una visin particular de la Arquitectura, a la que sirve como modelo de anlisis ontolgico para estudiar sus procesos de gnesis, invencin e individuacin. Para el desarrollo de stos, se ha utilizado como complemento bibliogrfico, otra obra del mismo autor, titulada Imaginacin e invencin 1965-66. En cuanto a las fuentes historiogrficas disciplinares, se ha elegido utilizar a Reyner P. Banham [1922-1988] y a Martin E. Pawley [1938-2008] como guas a travs de la arquitectura del siglo XX. Sus crnicas sobre la Primera y Segunda Era de la Mquina3 y su obra crtica, han servido como ndices desde los que reconstruir el imaginario del objeto tcnico moderno, y del que aprovisionarse de proyectos y obras de Arquitectura como casos de estudio para la tesis. Estas obras han servido adems como ndices de otra bibliografa, que ha sido complementaria a la de stos. Objetivos de la Tesis El principal objetivo de la tesis es demostrar la hiptesis: si una obra de arquitectura puede ser considerada un objeto tcnico y bajo qu condiciones, construyendo un criterio que permita reconocer cundo una obra de Arquitectura responde a la definicin de objeto tcnico. Otro objetivo es demostrar la importancia y potencia de la Transferencia tecnolgica en el proceso evolutivo de la Arquitectura, y para ello se presentan ejemplos de una metodologa de proyecto por ensamblaje, que Martin Pawley denominaba Design by Assembly. Tambin es un objetivo el de reconstruir un Atlas del Imaginario del objeto tcnico moderno, con el fin de conocer mejor las causas, razones y finalidades que llevaron a los arquitectos modernos a perseguir una arquitectura como objeto tcnico. Este Atlas permite relacionar panpticamente los distintos objetos tcnicos entre s, revelando la verdadera importancia y trascendencia de aqullos y las arquitecturas con las que se relacionan. En l, las arquitecturas vuelven a situarse en el contexto ms extenso y complejo de la industria y la historia de la tecnologa, al que siempre pertenecieron. De este modo, stas son capaces de desvelar todo el conocimiento -en forma de informacin- que portan en su propio cdigo gentico, desplegando captulos completos de cultura tecnolgica, tan antigua como la Humanidad y en constante y creciente evolucin. Estructura de la tesis Tras una Introduccin en la que se presentan algunos de los conceptos principales que se instrumentalizan en la tesis sobre la ontologa Simondoniana del objeto tcnico y sobre la transferencia tecnolgica aplicada al proyecto de Arquitectura, el texto principal de la tesis consta de tres partes: La primera se dedica a la Imaginacin, una segunda parte a la Invencin y una tercera a Individuacin o evolucin del objeto tcnico. Se termina con una Discusin de la tesis y un apartado de Conclusiones. En la Introduccin al objeto tcnico, ste se define ontolgicamente y se distinguen sus diferentes categoras (conjuntos tcnicos, individuos tcnicos y elementos tcnicos). Se explica el proceso de gnesis del objeto tcnico y sus fases de imaginacin, invencin e individuacin. Tambin se presentan los conceptos de transduccin, tecnicidad y sistema tcnico, fundamentales para entender el concepto de transferencia tecnolgica que se desarrollar despus. La concretizacin, explica el modo particular de individuacin y evolucin de los objetos tcnicos, un proceso por el que las diferentes partes de un objeto tcnico, se integran y tienden hacia la propia convergencia. Aqu se comprueba la efectividad del concepto simondoniano de Transduccin, como seal o informacin transmitida y transformada, y se relaciona con la Transferencia Tecnolgica - un proceso sinergtico, por el que un sector industrial se beneficia del desarrollo de otro sector- a la que se han referido explcitamente arquitectos e historiadores para explicar sus obras, durante la Segunda Era de la Mquina, y que es determinante para el desarrollo de la Industria. La transferencia tecnolgica sera la transmisin del conjunto de conocimientos sobre la tcnica, que incluyen su esfera fctica, pero tambin la esfera sensible de la experiencia. En su aplicacin a la arquitectura, las transferencias se han clasificado segn tres tipos: Eidticas, Tectnicas, Orgnicas. En la primera parte dedicada a la Imaginacin del objeto tcnico arquitectnico se realiza una reconstruccin arqueolgica y parcial- del imaginario del objeto tcnico moderno, con la intencin de conocer mejor su gnesis y la relacin con otros objetos tcnicos. Las fuentes de ese imaginario se buscan en las instalaciones de la Industria de principios de siglo XX, en particular en las fbricas de vehculos, con la finalidad de comprobar hasta qu punto, esos objetos tcnicos fueron importantes para imaginar la Arquitectura moderna. La reconstruccin se contina hasta la Segunda Era de la Mquina, cuando una nueva mirada ms inquisitiva y precisa, se dirige a otras fbricas, vehculos y componentes, interesndose por sus cualidades materiales y organizativas. Transferencias Eidticas, que operan desde un conocimiento intuitivo y son tiles para transmitir informacin sobre la esencia de un objeto tcnico que sirve de fuente. Conceptos abstractos se transmiten por medio de las imgenesobjeto, para producir una transformacin en su equivalente arquitectnico. Fruto de la investigacin, se han detectado un grupo de conceptos que han sido objeto de transferencias tecnolgicas de naturaleza eidtica, provenientes del imaginario del objeto tcnico moderno: FABRICADO, HABITABLE, FUNCIONAL, EFICIENTE, OBSOLESCENTE y BELLO. En la segunda parte dedicada a la Invencin del objeto tcnico arquitectnico, las transferencias tambin pueden ser Tectnicas, cuando lo que se transmite es una tcnica constructiva o estructural aplicada mediante MATERIALES artificiales (como los metales, los composites como el ferrocemento, y el plywood, o las aleaciones como el aluminio) o mediante el ensamblaje de ESTRUCTURAS o partes componentes de otro objeto tcnico, (como cascos, fuselajes, carroceras o aparejos) y tiene como resultado la invencin de un nuevo objeto tcnico arquitectnico. En la tercera parte dedicada a la individuacin, se abordan las transferencias ORGNICAS, lo que se transfiere es una tcnica organizativa, aplicada a travs de PROCEDIMIENTOS que definen la actividad del arquitecto como tecnlogo e inventor de objetos tcnicos. Estos procedimientos tienen un efecto transformador en tres instituciones tradicionales para la Arquitectura: la Escuela, el Estudio y la Obra, y sus resultados se resumen en nuevos modelos de organizacin de la Educacin de la Arquitectura, con la aparicin de los Talleres de proyectos; nuevos modelos de organizacin del ejercicio de arquitecto: la Oficina tcnica; nuevos modelos de organizacin del espacio, basados en la organizacin espacial de la Industria, que da lugar a patrones o Matrices espaciales; un nuevo modelo de organizacin del proyecto, que utiliza las herramientas grficas de la industria y el ensamblaje como metodologa; y un nuevo modelo de produccin arquitectnica, basado en la Industrializacin. Tras explicar los conceptos y la gnesis del ensamblaje y el montaje, se presenta el proyecto por ensamblaje (Design by assembly) como un mtodo que promueve la invencin arquitectnica. Se demuestra utilizando algunos casos analizados en la tesis, en los que se ha realizado alguna transferencia conceptual, constructiva u organizativa. Tras analizar las arquitecturas estudiadas en la tesis, se ha utilizado el mtodo gentico propuesto por Simondon para comprender cada evolucin particular, reconstruyendo las lneas genealgicas hasta sus ancestros, e identificando una serie de linajes genticos, que corresponderan con los conjuntos tcnicos estudiados en la tesis: el astillero, la fbrica de coches, y la fbrica de aeronaves: los Ancestros de la Modernidad. Los sistemas de organizacin espacial de estos conjuntos tcnicos, estn directamente relacionados con el objeto tcnico que se produce en l. A partir de ellos se definen una serie de matrices operativas (MILL, SHOP, SHED), que sirven para hacer una taxonoma del objeto tcnico arquitectnico. Esto se ejemplifica con algunos proyectos de Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Nicholas Grimshaw, Jean Kaplicky y Richard Horden. Tesis: Comprobacin de la hiptesis Simondon defina ontolgicamente el Objeto tcnico como aquello de lo que existe gnesis y que desarrolla una tendencia hacia la solidaridad y unidad. Para que una Arquitectura pueda ser reconocida como un Objeto tcnico, se deben dar una serie de condiciones, en las sucesivas fases que intervienen en su modo de existencia: Imaginacin. Estas arquitecturas remiten a un imaginario protagonizado por imgenes-objeto de otros objetos tcnicos (conjuntos tcnicos, individuos tcnicos y elementos tcnicos). Esas imgenes-objeto vehiculizan una transferencia eidtica de los objetos tcnicos que simbolizan. Invencin. Estas arquitecturas son el resultado de transferencias tectnicas, que se producen durante el proceso de proyecto, mediante el ensamblaje de materiales, componentes o procedimientos, utilizados en la industria para la produccin de otros objetos tcnicos. Individuacin. Estas arquitecturas evolucionan y se individualizan por concretizacin, un proceso por el que los objetos tcnicos se organizan para seguir su tendencia hacia la integracin de sus partes, con el fin de alcanzar la convergencia de funciones en una nica estructura. Esta integracin tiende hacia la naturalizacin del objeto tcnico, mediante la inclusin simbitica de sus medios naturales asociados. En este caso, veremos cmo se ha producido transferencias orgnicas, o lo que es lo mismo, cmo los objetos tcnicos en el nivel de los conjuntos tcnicos- se han tomado como modelo de organizacin por la arquitectura. Tras comprobar que de ellas existe una gnesis, que evoluciona por las fases de imaginacin e invencin y concretizacin, se analiza su imaginario, su materialidad, sus estructuras y su organizacin, con el fin de detectar patrones y principios organizativos comunes a otros objetos tcnicos. Inters de la tesis Desde el comienzo del nuevo siglo, diversos autores han demostrado un renovado inters por definir qu es el proyecto, qu lo constituye para qu sirve. Las aproximaciones al tema provienen de la filosofa analtica (Galle, 2008) o de la filosofa de la tecnologa (Verbeek, 2005; Vermaas, 2009) y a menudo versan sobre la relacin entre diseo y la cultura material (Dorschel 2003, Boradkar 2010 o Preston 2012). Es importante indicar el reciente y tambin creciente inters suscitado por la obra del filsofo francs, Gilbert Simondon [1924-1989], reconocida por su importante contribucin a la filosofa de la tcnica y la fenomenologa, y por la influencia en el pensamiento de filsofos como Gilles Deleuze, autor presente en multitud de tesis doctorales e investigaciones tericas llevadas a cabo en las principales escuelas de Arquitectura de todo el mundo desde los aos 90 hasta el presente. La reedicin y traduccin de la obra de Simondon (ing. 1980, esp. 2008) ha recibido la atencin de filsofos actuales como Paolo Virno, Bruno Latour o Bernard Stiegler, que siguen recurriendo a su estudio y anlisis para avanzar en su pensamiento, estando por tanto presente en el debate contemporneo sobre la tcnica. Tras su reciente traduccin al espaol, el pensamiento de Simondon ha despertado un gran inters en Amrica Latina, como demuestra la organizacin de varios congresos y simposios, as como la proliferacin de publicaciones en torno a su obra y pensamiento. Las futuras traducciones del resto de sus principales obras, asegurarn una introduccin cada vez mayor en la comunidad acadmica. Se ha procurado presentar una mirada alternativa de la Historia de la Arquitectura Moderna, utilizando como gua a un cronista como Reyner Banham. La Era de la Mquina se ha cruzado con la Mecanologa y el vitalismo tcnico de Simondon, obteniendo como resultado una interpretacin fresca, renovada y optimista de algunas de las ms importantes obras de Arquitectura del siglo XX, que seguro contribuirn al desarrollo de la del siglo XXI, inmerso ya en el cambio de paradigma hacia la sostenibilidad y la ecologa. ABSTRACT 'TRANS architecture. Imagination, invention and technical individuation of the architectural technical object. Technology transfer from the Transport Industry to Architectural Design [1900- 1973]' is a thesis dealing with the relationship between Architecture and the Technical Object during Modernity5. The theme of the thesis revolves around the technical culture, material culture and the history of twentieth-century technology. Hypothesis Held here is the existence of some architectures defined as technical objects. A study has been developed to prove if those architectures share the ontological properties of a technical object. Industry and Architecture The history of Modern Architecture is also the history of modern industry and its facilities, its products and devices, its procedures and production processes. Factories, workshops, steel mills, shipyards, mines, refineries, laboratories, cars, yachts, airplanes, airships, shuttles, space stations, home appliances, personal computers, mobile phones, motors, batteries, turbines, rigs, hulls, chassis, bodies, fuselages , composites and synthetic materials, the assembly line, modular manufacturing, the supply chain, process engineering, the planned obsolescence ... All these technical objects are constantly evolving thanks to the inconsistency of the human imagination and, as our intermediates, keep changing our way of relating and being in the world. Architecture, alike other technical objects, mediates between man and the World. In order to frame the vast field of the research, it has been filtered according to various parameters and qualities of Industry, establishing also a time frame which is related to a particular science-based way of making. The start of an industrial development, based on scientific knowledge is given from the Second Industrial Revolution -by consensus on the last third of the nineteenth century. This frame puts the focus of the thesis in the process of industrialization experienced by the Architecture of at least one century, and tours through Modernity during the first 75 years of the twenieth century. During this time, architects have made transfers of images, techniques, processes and materials from Industry, serving as a source of knowledge and thus allowing Architecture to evolve as a discipline. To reasonably address the enormous scope of the thesis, the industrial sector of transportation has ben chosen. It is not only a historical source of inspiration for architects, but also a traditional source of technology transfer for Modern Architecture. Technical sets such as shipyards, automobile factories or aircraft hangars, technical individuals as boats, cars or planes, and technical elements like the structures shaping and supporting them, are all technical objects which share properties with the architectures here presented. The launch of the moving assembly line in 1913, is instrumentally taken as a first time focus, from which to describe the evolution of many technical objects in the First Machine Age; a second focus could be found in 19586, year of the creation of the North American Space Agency (NASA), serving as a reference to the Second Machine Age. Most architectural technical objects used to test the hypothesis, gravitate around this second focus, in a range of plus or minus 25 years, with a clear intention to synchronize the time for action and time of thought. Architecture and Technical Object Technical objects have always been related to Architecture. In the past, the same technician who planned and oversaw a building structure, invented the devices and machines to carry them out. The foremen were the true 'technology transfer agents' from Industry. Their knowledge naturally related different manufacturing techniques to make diverse technical objects. Brunelleschi invented various cranes to build the dome of Santa Maria dei Fiori in Florence (ca.1461). Probably inspired by the reedition of Vitruvius treaty De Architectura (15 BC), whose last chapter was dedicated to the machines of classical Roman architecture and quoted inventors as Archimedes, the florentine architect was the first to patent an invention in 1421: an amphibious craft serving as a means of transportation for Carrara marble along the Arno river. At the daw of the Second Industrial Revolution, whose development was based on the scientific knowledge, we find a primitive modern example of the relationship between Architecture and a Technical Object: The Crystal Palace, built in London for the Great Exhibition of 1851 World Industry and designed by Joseph Paxton, was the largest to date industrialized building, and it will be always associated with the McCormick Reaper, worthy of the Grand Jurys Prize. Similar characteristics could be emphasized of both technical objects, such as their industrial origin and for being be the complex result of a simple assembly of technical elements. Since then, technological development has experienced a continued acceleration, resulting in an increasing specialization and separation of knowledge about techniques which were naturally attached in the past. This process has happened at the expense of an integrative knowledge and against promiscuity between Industry and Architecture. This is, undoubtedly, an inherent sign of our time, which causes the natural and interest of architects and other technicians about transfers, trans-disciplinarity and inter-disciplinarity, as a reaction to reestablish channels of relationships between these different fields of knowledge. The emergence of technical objects as modern vehicles in the early twentieth century (the car, the Ocean liner, the airship or the airplane) is directly related to the Architecture of the First Machine Age. Modern architects fascination for those new inhabitable structures has been maintained for over a century, with different intensity and paying attention to one and other technical objets, ranging from the domain of the symbolic value of the vehicles as objectsimages, during heroic period of the First Machine Age, to the more inquisitive glance characterizing the Second Machine Age, which sought a deeper understanding of the organization of such objects and the technical system to which they belonged. The periods immediately following both World Wars, showed a concentrated effort to bring new images of vehicles to the imaginary of architects, by means of publications and exhibitions. The homologous relationship between architectures and vehicles, in their capacity as living structures, is something well known since Le Corbusier used the images of cars, boats and airplanes to illustrate his manifesto, Towards an architecture in 1923. Modern vehicles have been the means by which to convey the concepts eager to transform the traditional attributes of Architecture: those relating to its manufacture, habitability, duration, functionality or aesthetics. The automobile stands out during the 30s and 50s, and the new vehicles of the Space Program satnd in the 60s and 70s. The prior knowledge and documentation of these events were a good indication to identify the industrial sector of Transportation as one of especial importance and as a fertile provider of technology transfer cases for Architecture. The Modern tradition, inaugurated by Le Corbusier in the 20s, has been maintained and defended by a host of modern architects like Albert Frey, Richard Neutra, Ralph Soriano, Charles Eames and Craig Ellwood, whose work - inspired by the legacy of previous technologists as Bucky Fuller or Jean Prouv- was fundamental and a mandatory reference for the next generation of architects like Cedric Price, Archigram, Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Jean and Richard Horden Kaplicky, among others. They have all contributed to increase the imaginary of the technical object, adding to it their architectural works. In the passage of the thesis, we repeatedly find a number of architects, who have been grouped according to a 'genealogical' structure, which has been called 'Technical Lineage'. Gathered by common interests and similar views or attitudes to the architectural design, understood as a technical object, they have operated through the practice of technology transfer, without limiting itself to specific compositional techniques of the architectural discipline. During the investigation, a selection of explicit references made by those architects, about other technical objects referring to their Architecture, has been compiled, showing constants and variations in their interests throughout the century, which has led to conclusions such as, having technicians sets (zeppelins factories, airships factories, car factories and shipyards) been taken by the architects of the first Modernity, as their main formal, compositional and imaginary models, while the Second Machine Age had taken them as a spatial and organizational model for their architecture. The above mentioned lineage of technologists includes weel-known seed lines as: Eiffel- Suchov-Behrens, Gropius-Mies-LeCorbusier- Lods-Prouve, in continental Europe; British branches as Loudon-Paxton-Williams-Stirling- Gowan-Smithsons-Price-Archigram-Foster- Rogers-Piano-Kaplicky-Horden. And we could also find intercontinental connections as Fuller- Eames-Rudolph-Foster-Rogers, or other less predictable ramifications as LeRicolais-Kahn Piano-Kaplicky, or LeCorbusier-Frey-Lacaton & Vassal... Many more would surely deserve to be included in this list, and indeed, the thesis assumes the impossibility of including them all (for practical reasons) and even contemplates possible future extensions. The material included herein is to demonstrate the continuity in the approaches, statements and in the applied architectural design techniques, from which we can draw some conclusions. Today, one hundred years after Ford put up the moving assembly line, we still find this tradition alive in the words of the architect Richard Horden, whose work carries with it as with the information embedded in every technical element- the whole techncial culture of a modern tradition. Horden is represented here as one of the exponents of what I have called the lineage of technologists. That is why I wanted to conclude the thesis with an interview to Richard Horden, held in May 2015 in his studio in London's Berkeley Square (see Appendices). Guides For the development of this thesis, another thesis, entitled: The mode of existence of technical objects, is taken as the main reference work. Read and published in 1958 by the French philosopher Gilbert Simondon [1924- 1989], it was dedicated to the ontology of the technical object. This work frames the intellectual approach of the thesis, which connects with phenomenology to mobilize a particular vision of Architecture. It is used as a model of ontological analysis to study its genesis, invention and evolutionary processes. To develop these, another work by the same author, titled Imagination and Invention (1965- 1966) has been used as a bibliographical complement. As for the disciplinary historical sources, Reyner P. Banham [1922-1988] and Martin E. Pawley [1938-2008] have been chosen as guides through the modern Architecture of the twentieth century. Their cronical reports on the First and Second Machine Age and their critical works have served as an index from which to reconstruct the imaginary of the modern technical object in the Machine Age7, and to stock up on projects and works of architecture, used as case studies for the thesis. These works have also been used as triggers for other literatures, which has been complementary to the former. Objectives of the Thesis The main objective of the thesis is to prove its hypothesis: if a work of architecture can be considered a technical object and under what conditions, building then a criterion for recognizing when a work of architecture meets the definition of a technical object. Another aim is to demonstrate the importance and power of Technology Transfer in the evolutionary process of Architecture, and to do it, some examples of a methodology for architectural design that Martin Pawley called 'Design by Assembly' are presented. It is also an objective to reconstruct an Atlas of the imaginary of the modern technical object, in order to better understand the causes, reasons and purposes that led modern architects to pursue architecture as a technical object. This Atlas allows to panoptically relate the various technical objects, revealing the true importance and significance of those and the architecture with whom they interact. Architectures are again at the largest and most complex industrial context and the history of technology, which always belonged. Thus, they are able to reveal all the knowledge-in the shape of information-carried in their own 'genetic' code, displaying full chapters of technological culture as old as mankind and constantly growing and evolving. Thesis: Proving the Hypothesis Simondon ontologically defined the technical object as that of which genesis exists and that develops a tendency towards solidarity and unity. For an architecture to be recognized as a technical object, a number of conditions should be given, in the successive phases involved in their mode of existence: Imagination. These architectures refer to an imaginary featuring images-object other technical objects (technical sets, technical individuals and technical elements). These images are the means to an eidetic transfer of the technical objects which they symbolize. Invention. These architectures are the result of tectonic transfers, which occur during the architectural design process, by assembling materials, components or procedures used in industry for the production of other technical objects. Individuation. These architectures evolve and are individualized by concretization, a process leading to the full integration of its parts and aiming the full convergence of its functions into a single structure. This integration tends towards the naturalization of the technical object, by means of a symbiotic incorporation of their associated milieus. After checking if there is a genesis of them, which evolves through the phases of imagination and invention and concretization, their imaginary, materiality, structure and organization are analyzed in order to detect patterns and common organizational principles to other technical objects counterparts. Structure The main text of the thesis consists of three parts. Before there is an Introduction to the main concepts that are exploited in the thesis on ontology Simondonian technical object, and technology transfer applied to Architecture. Then a first part covers the Imaginary of the modern technical object, a second part is dedicated to the Invention and a third part to the individuation process The thesis ends with a section for the Discussion and the Conclusions. The Introduction to the technical object, this is ontologically defined and its different categories are distinguished. The process of genesis of the technical object and the phases of imagination, invention and indivuation are explained. Concepts as Transduction, Technicality and Technical system are presented for being fundamental to understand the concept of Technology Transfer that will take place later. The concretization is explained as the particular mode of individuation and evolution of technical objects, a process by which the different parts of a technical object, are integrated and begin a tendency towards a convergence in itself. The first part, dedicated to the Imagination of the architectural technical object presents a parcial "archaeological" reconstruction the imaginary of the modern technical object, intended to better understand its genesis and the relationship with other technical objects. The imaginary sources are searched in the premises of the Industry of the early twentieth century, and particularly in the factories of modern vehicles, in order to see, to what extent these technical objects were important to imagine modern architecture. The reconstruction is continued until the Second Machine Age, when a new, more inquisitive and precise gaze turns to other factories, other vehicles and other components and materials, inquiring now about their organizational qualities. The second part is devoted to the Invention of the architectural technical object. The effectiveness of the simondonian concept of Transduction is checked: a transmitted and transformed sign or information, which relates to Technology Transfer, a synergetic process by which an industrial sector benefits from the development of another sector, to which some architects and historians have explicitly referred to explain their works during Machine Age, and which is crucial for the development of the industry. Technology transfer would be the transmission of a set of information or knowledge about technique, including the factual sphere of technique, but also the sensitive sphere of experience. In their application to Architecture, these transfers have been classified according to three types: Eidetic, Tectonic and Organic. Eidetic Transfers operate from an intuitive knowledge and are useful for transmitting information about the essence of the technical object serving as a source. Abstract concepts are transmitted through the object-images to produce an equivalent transformation in Architecture. A group of concepts that have been the subject of technology transfers of eidetic nature, and have been originated in the imaginary of the modern technical object, have been detected as a result of the research: FABRICATED, INHABITABLE, FUNCTIONAL, EFFICIENT, OBSOLESCENT, and BEAUTIFUL. The transfers can also be Tectonic when, that which is transferred is a constructive or structural technique, applied through artificial MATERIALS such as metals, composites as the ferrocement, or plywood, or alloys such as aluminum; or by means of the assembly of STRUCTURES or parts of other technical objects such as hulls, fuselages, car bodies or rigs, resulting in the invention of a new architectural technical object. In the case of ORGANIC transfers, what is transferred is an organizational technique, applied by means of a set of PROCEDURES defining the activity of the architect as a technologist and inventor of technical objects. These procedures have a transformative effect on three traditional institutions for Architecture: the School, the Atelier and the Work, and the results are summarized in new models of organization of the Education of Architecture, with the onset of the Architectural Design Studios or workshops; new models of organization of the practice of architect: the technical office; and new models of space organization, based on the spatial organization of the industry, resulting in spatial patterns or spatial matrices; a new model of organization of the project, which uses graphical tools and industrail protocols as the assembly as a methodology; a new model of architectural production based on the industrialization. After explaining the concepts and the genesis of assembly and montage, Design by assembly is presented as a method that promotes architectural invention, and is shown using some case studies analyzed in the thesis, in which there has been made some conceptual, constructive or organizational transfer. After analyzing the architectures studied in the thesis, genetic method proposed by Simondon was used to understand every particular evolution, reconstructing their genealogical lines up to their ancestors, identifying a series of genetic lineages, which correspond to the technical sets studied in the thesis : the shipyard, the car factory, and aircraft factory. The real ancestors of Modernity. The spatial organization systems of these technical sets are directly related to the technical object that is fabricated within them. From that point, a number of operational matrices are defined (MILL, SHOP, SHED) and used to make a taxonomy of the architectural technical object. This is exemplified by some projects by architects as Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Nicholas Grimshaw, Jean and Richard Horden Kaplicky. Interest of the thesis Since the beginning of the new century, several authors have shown a renewed interest in defining what a project is, how it is constituted and what it is for. The approaches to the subject are brought from analytic philosophy (Galle, 2008) or from the philosophy of technology (Verbeek, 2005; Vermaas, 2009) and they often speak about the relationship between design and material culture (Dorschel 2003, 2010 or Preston Boradkar 2012). It is also important to note the recent and growing interest in the work of French philosopher Gilbert Simondon [1924-1989], mainly known for its important contribution to the philosophy of technology and phenomenology of the technical object, and the influence on the thinking of contemporary philosophers as Paolo Virno, Bruno Latour or Gilles Deleuze, being the latter a author present in many doctoral theses and theoretical research conducted at major architecture schools around the world since the 90s to the present. The republication and translation of the work of Simondon (eng. 1980, spn. 2008) has received the attention from current philosophers such as Bernard Stiegler who continues to use its study and analysis to advance his thinking, thus being present in the contemporary debate about the technique. After its recent translation into Spanish, the thought of Simondon has aroused great interest in Latin America, as evidenced by the organization of various conferences and symposia, as well as the proliferation of publications about his work and thought8. Future translations of the rest of his major works, will ensure increased introduction in the academic community. Efforts have been made to present an alternative view of the History of Modern Architecture, using a reporter as Reyner P.Banham as a guide. The Machine Age intersects Simondons mechanology and his "technical vitalism", resulting in a fresh, renewed and optimistic interpretation of some of the most important works of Architecture of the twentieth century, which will surely contribute to the development of this centurys Architecture, already immersed in the paradigm shift towards sustainability and ecology.
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Tomos 10 y 11 A. Ronchi, editor.
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This thesis examines the role of conservative newspaper proprietors and editors to generate support for war against the Boers in South Africa. The thesis utilises Rune Ottosen's theoretical model concerning newspapers creating a pro-war mentality, and S.E. Finer's theory on the influences of the military on civilian Government. The pivotal supportive roles of Governor Lamington and Premiers Dickson and Philp and the oppositional role of Premier Dawson are also examined.
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"World Architecture records the major architectural contributions made in all regions of the world to the development of human culture. Grouped into 10 geographical regions and representing five twenty-year-periods, the buildings have been selected by approximately 80 eminent international architectural critics. Each volume contains 100 buildings from one particular region, each object accompanied by an analytical text as well as by drawings and photographs. Introduction essays by the general editor, Kenneth Frampton, and the editor(s) of each volume complete the survey. The series comprises 10 volumes. The books are handsome, linen-bound and stitched, generously formatted (21,5 x 28,5 cm/8,4 x 11 inches) and contain approx. 300 pages and 400 colour prints each. This unique project gives the most precise and authoritative description of 1000 of the century's most notable buildings. Countries: Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, The Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam and Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Oceania."
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Literary tale of A.M. Remizov (1900s 1920s) The thesis is devoted to a detailed historical-literary description of a tale as a genre tradition in the creative work of Alexei Mikhailovich Remizov (1877-1957), one of the major Russian prose writers of the 20s century. This very approach allows to specify the place and functional meaning of this genre in literary practice of the writer and to appeal to one of the key problems of the 20-21 century literature history a specific of modernistic literature composition principle and a role of montage techniques in its formation. Remizov was working on tales during his whole life, though the most productive years of folklore studies fell to 1900s 1910s. During this period he intensively studied folklore materials, narrated several hundreds of folk tales and in 1900s 1920s published eight tale collections which played a significant role in the formation of stylistic and compositional principles of his prose of the 1910s 1920s, especially montage techniques, which in its turn influenced the development of the narrative forms in the Russian post-revolutionary literature. At the same time a tale has specified not only poetics but also problematics of Remizovs creative work, as when choosing folklore sources the writer always alluded to modern themes and relevant intellectual trends. The current research work, based on various archive materials and a wide spectrum of modern historical-literary data, complies four chapters with a consistent description of creation history, publication and critics reviews of Remizovs tale collections and single tales contributing to his creative evolution characteristic. Furthermore, the work refers to composition and subject of the particular collections. On the whole it enables to follow up genre dynamics. The first chapter of the work is devoted to Posolon (Sunwise), the earliest tale collection of Remizov. The main feature of the collection is that its composition is oriented on the agrarian calendar and the subject on the system of mythological views reflected in the Russian folklore. This very collection to a large extent corresponds to the writers views on the myth represented in Pismo v redaktsiyu (Letter to the Editor). The history of this manifesto appearing is analyzed in the second chapter. The incident which caused its forthcoming contributed to legitimization of Remizovs narrations as a relevant genre of modern literature and to upgrading the writer in professional hierarchy. The third chapter analyzes Remizovs collections of 1900s early 1920s, a result of Remizovs scrupulous work with a specific tale material. He is acting here as a tale repertory researcher and in some cases as a collector as well. The means of such collections topical organization is not the myth but the hero of the tale. According to this principle single pieces are grouped into cycles, which then form complicated montage constructs. Texts themselves can be viewed as a sort of hyper-quotations, as they in fact entirely coincide with their original sources. Besides, collections usually have their own ideal patterns. In the fourth chapter a connection of Remizovs creative work with folk fun culture and a tradition of the folklore noel story is being demonstrated on Zavetnyie skazy (Secret Tales) material. A consistent collections history creation analysis convinces us that the tale was a sort of laboratory in which main writers prose methods were being worked out.
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Tutkielman lhtkohtana on oikeusjuttu, joka Venjll nostettiin kirjailija Vladimir Sorokinia vastaan kesll 2002. Sorokinia ja hnen kustantamoaan Ad Marginemia syytettiin pornografian levittmisest romaanissa Goluboe salo (1999), tarkemmin sanoen sivuilla 256 262, joilla kuvataan kommunistijohtajien Stalinin ja Hruvin homoseksuaalinen akti. Syytteen takana oli konservatiivinen, presidentti Vladimir Putinia ihannoiva nuorisoliike Iduie vmeste ("Yhdesskulkijat"). Oikeusjuttu ja siihen liittyneet tapahtumat - prosessia kutsuttiin venlisiss tiedotusvlineiss yksinkertaisesti "Sorokinin jutuksi" ("delo Sorokina") - nostattivat Venjll laajan ja vilkkaan ns. kirjasodan kaunokirjallisuuden moraalitehtvst ja kirjailijan vastuusta/vapaudesta. Tyss selvitelln, miksi nimenomaan kirjailija Vladimir Sorokin ja nimenomaan romaani Goluboe salo aiheuttivat skandaalin, mit argumentteja polemiikissa esiintyi ja miten tapahtumat heijastavat Venjn yhteiskunnallista tilannetta, etenkin kaunokirjallisuuden nykyist asemaa. Metodologisesti tutkielma sijoittuu kirjallisuussosiologian ja reseptiotutkimuksen (vastaanottotutkimuksen) alalle. Tutkielman aineisto - 71 lehtiartikkelia - on koottu 31 venlisest valtakunnallisesta sanoma- ja aikakauslehdest Integrum-tietokantaa hyvksikytten. "Sorokinin juttua" analysoidaan artikkeleiden valossa kolmesta nkkulmasta: suhteessa 1) seksuaalisuuden ja 2) kaunokirjallisuuden asemaan Venjll sek lyhyemmin suhteessa 3) muutamiin yleisyhteiskunnallisiin aspekteihin. Taustaksi selvitelln venlisen postmodernismin teoriaa ja nk. kirjallisuusinstituution toimintaa. Tutkielmassa esitetn, ett skandaali kertoo osaltaan niist ongelmista, joiden kanssa Venj 2000-luvulla joutuu painiskelemaan. "Sorokinin juttu" laajeni pitklti yli perinteisen pornografiakysymyksen; kirjasodassa tuli tiedotusvlineiss ksitelty seksuaalisuuden ja kaunokirjallisuuden aseman lisksi mm. sananvapautta, tapauksen poliittisia konnotaatioita, "lymystn" ja "kansan" suhdetta, neuvostomenneisyyden pimeit puolia sek Venjn suhdetta lnteen. Jupakka mys nhtiin erinomaisena PR:n Sorokinille. Goluboe salo nytt joutuneen oikeusprosessin kohteeksi, koska siin a) tuodaan venliseen kaunokirjallisuuteen avoin ja yksityiskohtainen seksuaalisuuden ja ruumiintoimintojen kuvaus b) herjataan hpemttmsti venlisen kaunokirjallisuuden kanonisoituja klassikoita sek kritisoidaan tervsti neuvostomenneisyytt, jota Venj ei ole viel kyennyt tyhjentvsti ksittelemn. Skandaalissa asettuivat vastakkain ns. traditionalistinen ja postmodernistinen kirjallisuusksitys; edellisen mukaan kirjailijoiden tulisi kantaa yhteiskunnallinen vastuunsa, jlkimminen tahtoo nhd kaunokirjallisuuden itsenisempn ilmin. Tutkimuksen lopputuloksena valtaenemmist aineistosta nytt enemmn tai vhemmn puolustavan Sorokinia - tosin ei niinkn hnen romaaninsa kirjallisten ansioiden vuoksi (joita harvat kiittivt), vaan silkasta periaatteesta: sanan- ja valinnanvapautta ei tahdota nhd en kahlittavan. Avainsanat: Sorokin - pornografia - kaunokirjallisuus - kirjallisuussosiologia - vastaanotto
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Tutkielman aiheena on Rolf Lagerborgin seksuaaliradikalismi ja ylempien yhteiskuntaryhmien keskiniset esiaviolliset suhteet 1900-luvun alun Suomessa. Filosofian tohtori, sittemmin professori Rolf Lagerborg (1874-1959) oli aikakauden nkyvin seksuaaliradikaalien aatteiden ylluokkainen kannattaja. Hnen 'vapaata rakkautta' ja naisen vapautta puolustaneista kirjoituksistaan sek tuomioistuinavioliitostaan sukeutui kiivassanainen vittely, joka laajuudessaan oli Suomessa ennennkemtn. Keskustelu levisi kaikkiin sivistyneistn trkeimpiin nitorviin ja siihen osallistui suuri joukko aikansa huomattavimpia mielipidevaikuttajia. Tutkielmassa selvitetn, mit Rolf Lagerborg vuosisadan alussa esitti sukupuolikysymyksest, mihin muihin toimiin hn sanaradikalismin lisksi ryhtyi sek miksi hn tmn kaiken teki. Siin perehdytn mys Lagerborgin muuhun kirjalliseen tuotantoon ja jljitetn sit laajempaa kontekstia, josta seksuaaliradikaalit ksitykset muodostivat yhden osan. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan lisksi Lagerborgin provosoimaa julkista keskustelua. Huomio kiinnitetn erityisesti niihin perustaviin nkemyseroihin, joita kiistaan osallistuneiden sivistyneistn edustajien keskuudessa ilmeni. Lhtkohtana on oletus, ett sukupuolikysymyksen aktualisoituminen vuosisadan vaihteessa oli osa lnsimaisessa maailmankuvassa tapahtunutta fundamentaalista muutosta. Lopuksi hahmotetaan kirkonkirjoista kertyn empiirisen tilastoaineiston kautta sit sukupuolielmn ruohonjuuritasoa, jonka pll erilaiset hyvinkin korkealentoiset diskurssit risteilivt. Pyrkimyksen on tutkia yksiln, yhteisn sek tilastollisen aineiston vuorovaikutusta. Lagerborgin seksuaaliradikalismin keskeisimmksi piirteeksi nousi yksiln itsemrmisoikeutta ja valinnanvapautta korostanut individualismi. Taustalla vaikuttivat mys reformistinen sosialismi sek nietzschelis-westermarckilainen relativismi. Trkein motiivi oli taistelu uskonnonvapauden puolesta, mik Lagerborgille merkitsi samalla henkilkohtaista vapaustaistelua uskonnosta. 'Vapaan rakkauden' kannattajat ja vastustajat on maailmankatsomuksensa perusteella tutkielmassa jaettu viiteen ryhmn. Lagerborgin edustaman eettisen pluralismin lisksi erotetaan vanhaluterilainen arvomaailma, moderni kristillisyys, suomalais-kansallinen idealismi sek luonnon korottaminen absoluutiksi. Osaltaan sukupuolinen pidttyvyys osoitetaan valtastrategiaksi, johon ert ylluokkaiset naiset ja nouseva sivistyneist tukeutuivat. Lagerborgin toiminnan vlittmin tulos oli siviiliavioliittohankkeen nopeutuminen Suomessa. Nkyvin seuraus taas oli ankara absoluuttisen sukupuolimoraalin puolustus. Julkinen keskustelu ei kuitenkaan ollut suorassa suhteessa sukupuolielmn kytntihin. Tutkimusajanjakso 1904-1914 ei ollut tutkielman tilastollisen aineiston valossa murroskausi sen paremmin absoluuttisen kuin relativistisenkaan sukupuolimoraalin suuntaan. Tutkimuksessa Lagerborg osoittautuu marginaaliseksi hahmoksi. Syyn thn marginalisoitumiseen oli konservatiivinen ymprist, johon nhden monet Lagerborgin ajatukset olivat ns. aikaansa edell. Lisksi ongelmia aiheutti Lagerborgin konfliktinhaluinen ja epdiplomaattinen esiintyminen. Marginaalisuus ei kuitenkaan ole merkityksetnt. Lagerborg-kiista paljastaa kiinnostavalla tavalla yhteyden, joka vallitsee individualisoitumisen ja modernin seksuaalisuuden muotoutumisen vlill.
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The aim of this thesis was to study what kind of home-made menstrual pads were used in the early 20th century in Finland, how the home-made pads were made and which techniques and materials were used. The use and taking care of menstrual pads were also explored. The history of menstrual pads has been studied in Sweden, Germany and United States but none of those studies has concentrated on home-made pads. Instead, there are many studies about womanhood and menstruation. In many studies home-made menstrual pads are only briefly mentioned. Menstrual pads were not commonly used in Finland at the beginning of the 20th century, but already in the 1940s the use of menstrual pads had become common in every stratum of society. Home-made menstrual pads were used even until the 1960s. In Finland, factory-made disposable menstrual pads became common only in the 1930s and they were only slowly accepted. The study material consisted of nine interviews, three archival inquiries, health care guidebooks from 1893 to 1943 and authentic menstrual pads, menstrual belts and other objects related to them. The interviewed women were born between 1915 and 1939. The narrative approach was used in the study and it also guided the analysis. The interview and archival data were studied according to the basic rules of oral history studies. Literature consisted of publications from several disciplines. The extensive primary material played the most important role in this study. The reconstructions of the menstrual pads were made according to the interviewed women s advice. In Finland there were innumerable variations of home-made menstrual pads. The pads were most commonly crocheted and knitted either by hand or by knitting machine. Pads were also sewn of cloth, old bed linen or old underwear. The menstrual pads were self-made or made by a female relative. Word of mouth was important in spreading information on how to make pads, because there were hardly any instructions available. The biggest pads were 54 cm long and 13 cm wide. The most widely used pad model was a rectangle, which had triangle-shaped ends with a buttonhole or a loop. The pad was attached to the menstrual belt or to the buttons of the suspender belt. Knitted and crocheted pads had one, two or three layers. In sewn pads, there could be even more layers. Cellulose wadding or pieces of cloth could be placed inside the pad to increase the absorption ability. The experiences of the comfort of self-made pads varied. The crocheted and sewn pads were found chafing, knitted ones were found soft and comfortable. The menstrual pads were laborious to wash and boil in lye water. Therefore disposable pads made everyday life easier. The home-made menstrual pads were part of a unique tradition of handicrafts and folk culture. Hand-made pads were one of the most common handicraft products and were a part of every woman s life. Even so, the menstrual pads were unnoticeable. The large number of variations was probably caused by the silence around menstrual topics and by the lack of instructions for making pads. Variations are also explained by the uniqueness of every handicraft product. In Finland the home-made pads were used until relatively recent times. This was caused by the conditions of wartime and the following years and the rarity of commercial pads. Furthermore, until the late 20th century Finland was an agricultural society where all innovations spread slowly. Home-made menstrual pad was a secret handicraft of women and every woman needed to know how to make it by herself.
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Obituaries; photos with family; newspaper clippings.
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Two telegrams from Hungary (early 1900s) and five picture postcards (Austria Hungary)
