Le droit à un environnement de qualité au Québec : une réponse aux problèmes de pollution diffuse?

Les Québécois sont de plus en plus conscients de l’environnement qui les entoure et de l’importance d’en assurer la qualité et la pérennité. Certains phénomènes, tels les changements climatiques, l’accumulation de polluants organiques persistants et l’amincissement de la couche d’ozone, que nous qualifierons de phénomènes environnementaux diffus, sont engendrés par de multiples émetteurs de polluants et ont des effets globaux qui ne peuvent être liés à un événement précis et dont les impacts sont difficiles à identifier et à quantifier pour le moment. En l’absence de preuve quant aux effets qu’auront ces phénomènes diffus sur les citoyens et les difficultés liées à la preuve scientifique du lien causal entre ce dommage et un émetteur de polluant donné, les recours classiques en responsabilité civile et pour troubles de voisinage, prévus aux articles 1457 et 976 C.c.Q., apparaissent inopérants. Nous nous interrogeons donc sur l’existence d’un droit à l’environnement qui conférerait aux citoyens le droit de vivre dans un environnement sain et leur permettrait ainsi de réclamer que cesse toute atteinte environnementale engendrée par ces phénomènes, même si elle n’a pas d’effet directement sur eux. Considérant l’importance de l’efficacité des recours qui pourraient permettre une mise en œuvre de ce droit, nous procéderons à l’analyse de trois sources potentielles d’un droit à l’environnement sous cet angle. À cet effet, nous étudierons les recours constitutionnels et quasi-constitutionnels liés à la Charte canadienne des droits et libertés, à la Charte des droits et libertés de la personne et au recours institutionnel prévu dans la Loi sur la qualité de l’environnement. Considérant l’absence de reconnaissance suffisante d’un droit à l’environnement et de recours efficaces pour en assurer la mise en œuvre, nous proposerons ensuite des pistes de solution afin que puisse être développé un mécanisme permettant une réponse judiciaire aux phénomènes environnementaux diffus.

L'application du principe du pollueur-payeur à la gestion du risque environnemental et à la mutualisation des coûts de la pollution

Le but de cette étude est de déterminer qui paie pour le risque de pollution et par conséquent de vérifier si le principe du pollueur-payeur est effectivement mis en œuvre dans le domaine de la gestion du risque environnemental. Il s’agit d’examiner le degré de mutualisation de la gestion du risque dans différentes législations particulière. Les payeurs peuvent a priori se classer dans quatre catégories : les personnes dont l’activité contribue au risque de pollution, les compagnies d’assurance qui acceptent d’assurer ces personnes, les organismes ou autorités publics et les tiers. Divers exemples issus de la législation belge ou européenne seront examinés afin de déterminer s’ils sont conformes à la lettre et/ou à l’esprit du principe pollueur-payeur. Il s’agit notamment de la responsabilité civile, de la responsabilité environnementale, de la gestion des déchets et du marché de quotas d’émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Les techniques de responsabilité qui interviennent après que le dommage ait lieu et requièrent la démonstration de l’existence d’un lien de causalité ne permettent pas toujours d’assurer pleinement la fonction préventive du principe du pollueur-payeur. Elles ne constituent pas des instruments adéquats de gestion de la pollution diffuse ou chronique. En conséquence, des techniques de mutualisation de la gestion du risque environnemental se sont développées. Le recours à ces techniques de mutualisation (par le recours à l’assurance, aux fonds publics financés par la fiscalité environnementale ou aux marchés de droit d’émissions) est-il conforme au principe pollueur-payeur et permet-il d’atteindre l’objectif d’un niveau élevé de protection de l’environnement ? L’effet dissuasif du principe pollueur-payeur n’est-il pas amoindri par la mutualisation ? L’article montre que la définition du principe pollueur-payeur par la Cour de Justice de l’Union européenne est centrée sur la contribution au risque de pollution ce qui permet de recourir aux techniques de mutualisation de la gestion du risque tout en respectant le Traité sur le fonctionnement de l’Union européenne. 

Modélisation des exportations de sédiments et de nutriments dans le bassin versant de la rivière Tomifobia dans un contexte de changements climatiques

La pollution diffuse provenant des milieux agricoles a une influence majeure sur la qualité de l’eau. Le transport de sédiments et de nutriments, tels que le phosphore et l’azote, est particulièrement préoccupant. Les changements climatiques anticipés modifieront le régime hydrologique des rivières, ce qui entraînera des conséquences difficiles à anticiper, notamment sur la qualité de l’eau. Le site à l’étude est le bassin versant de la rivière Tomifobia, situé au sud-ouest du Québec, qui possède une superficie de 436 km² et qui comporte une forte activité agricole. Il a un impact important sur la qualité de l’eau du lac Massawippi puisqu’il draine 70% de son bassin versant. Le modèle hydrologique spatialisé Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) a été utilisé pour effectuer l’évaluation quantitative et qualitative de l’apport en eau à la rivière. Les activités agricoles ont été représentées dans le modèle selon un calendrier typique pour chacune des différentes cultures. Le calage et la validation du modèle pour le débit de la rivière Tomifobia ont été effectués à l’aide de la reconstitution des apports au lac Massawippi. Pour la qualité de l’eau, les données provenant de l’Institut de recherche et de développement en agroenvironnement (IRDA), du Comité de gestion du bassin versant de la rivière Saint-François (COGESAF) et la campagne d’échantillonnage du Groupe de recherche sur l’eau de l’Université de Sherbrooke (GREAUS) ont été utilisées. Les éléments analysés par rapport à la qualité de l’eau sont les sédiments, le phosphore et les nitrates. Différentes projections climatiques ont été entrées dans le modèle dans le but de déterminer les tendances hydrologiques futures. L’impact des changements climatiques sur le régime hydrologique se traduit principalement par une augmentation des débits hivernaux et une diminution des débits printaniers. Aucune tendance statistiquement significative n’a été observée pour la période estivale et automnale. L’effet des changements climatiques sur les exportations de nitrates est similaire à celui sur le débit. Pour les exportations de sédiments et de phosphore, on note une hausse à l’hiver, une baisse au printemps et une hausse pour l’été et l’automne.

A Monte Carlo approach to the inverse problem of diffuse pollution risk in agricultural catchments

The hydrological and biogeochemical processes that operate in catchments influence the ecological quality of freshwater systems through delivery of fine sediment, nutrients and organic matter. Most models that seek to characterise the delivery of diffuse pollutants from land to water are reductionist. The multitude of processes that are parameterised in such models to ensure generic applicability make them complex and difficult to test on available data. Here, we outline an alternative - data-driven - inverse approach. We apply SCIMAP, a parsimonious risk based model that has an explicit treatment of hydrological connectivity. we take a Bayesian approach to the inverse problem of determining the risk that must be assigned to different land uses in a catchment in order to explain the spatial patterns of measured in-stream nutrient concentrations. We apply the model to identify the key sources of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) diffuse pollution risk in eleven UK catchments covering a range of landscapes. The model results show that: 1) some land use generates a consistently high or low risk of diffuse nutrient pollution; but 2) the risks associated with different land uses vary both between catchments and between nutrients; and 3) that the dominant sources of P and N risk in the catchment are often a function of the spatial configuration of land uses. Taken on a case-by-case basis, this type of inverse approach may be used to help prioritise the focus of interventions to reduce diffuse pollution risk for freshwater ecosystems. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A multi-scale framework for strategic management of diffuse pollution

A multi-scale framework for decision support is presented that uses a combination of experiments, models, communication, education and decision support tools to arrive at a realistic strategy to minimise diffuse pollution. Effective partnerships between researchers and stakeholders play a key part in successful implementation of this strategy. The Decision Support Matrix (DSM) is introduced as a set of visualisations that can be used at all scales, both to inform decision making and as a communication tool in stakeholder workshops. A demonstration farm is presented and one of its fields is taken as a case study. Hydrological and nutrient flow path models are used for event based simulation (TOPCAT), catchment scale modelling (INCA) and field scale flow visualisation (TopManage). One of the DSMs; The Phosphorus Export Risk Matrix (PERM) is discussed in detail. The PERM was developed iteratively as a point of discussion in stakeholder workshops, as a decision support and education tool. The resulting interactive PERM contains a set of questions and proposed remediation measures that reflect both expert and local knowledge. Education and visualisation tools such as GIS, risk indicators, TopManage and the PERM are found to be invaluable in communicating improved farming practice to stakeholders. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Mitigation of diffuse phosphorus pollution during rewetting of fen peat soils: A trans-European case study

Intensive cultivation of fen peat soils (Eutric Histosols) for agricultural purposes, started in Europe about 250 years ago, resulting in decreased soil fertility, increased oxidation of peat and corresponding CO2-emissions to the atmosphere, nutrient transfer to aquatic ecosystems and losses in the total area of the former native wetlands. To prevent these negative environmental effects set-aside programs and rewetting measures were promoted in recent years. Literature results and practical experiences showed that large scale rewetting of intensively used agricultural Histosols may result in the mobilisation of phosphorus (P), its transport to adjacent surface waters and an accelerated eutrophication risk. The paper summarises results from an international European Community sponsored research project and demonstrates how results obtained at different scales and from different scientific disciplines were compiled to derive a strategy to carry out rewetting measures. A decision support system (DSS) for a hydrologically sensitive area in the Droemling catchment in north-eastern Germany was developed and is presented as a tool to regulate rewetting in order to control P release. It is demonstrated that additional laboratory experiments to identify essential processes of P release during rewetting and the site-specific management of the water table, the involvement of specific knowledge and experience of the stakeholders are necessary to develop an applicable DSS. The presented DSS is practically used to prevent freshwater resources from diffuse P pollution.

Evaluation of field wetlands for mitigation of diffuse pollution from agriculture: sediment retention, cost and effectiveness

Diffuse pollution, and the contribution from agriculture in particular, has become increasingly important as pollution from point sources has been addressed by wastewater treatment. Land management approaches, such as construction of field wetlands, provide one group of mitigation options available to farmers. Although field wetlands are widely used for diffuse pollution control in temperate environments worldwide, there is a shortage of evidence for the effectiveness and viability of these mitigation options in the UK. The Mitigation Options for Phosphorus and Sediment Project aims to make recommendations regarding the design and effectiveness of field wetlands for diffuse pollution control in UK landscapes. Ten wetlands have been built on four farms in Cumbria and Leicestershire. This paper focuses on sediment retention within the wetlands, estimated from annual sediment surveys in the first two years, and discusses establishment costs. It is clear that the wetlands are effective in trapping a substantial amount of sediment. Estimates of annual sediment retention suggest higher trapping rates at sandy sites (0.5–6 t ha�1 yr�1), compared to silty sites (0.02–0.4 t ha�1 yr�1) and clay sites (0.01–0.07 t ha�1 yr�1). Establishment costs for the wetlands ranged from £280 to £3100 and depended more on site specific factors, such as fencing and gateways on livestock farms, rather than on wetland size or design. Wetlands with lower trapping rates would also have lower maintenance costs, as dredging would be required less frequently. The results indicate that field wetlands show promise for inclusion in agri-environment schemes, particularly if capital payments can be provided for establishment, to encourage uptake of these multi-functional features.

Risk-based modelling of diffuse land use impacts from rural landscapes upon salmonid fry abundance

Research has demonstrated that landscape or watershed scale processes can influence instream aquatic ecosystems, in terms of the impacts of delivery of fine sediment, solutes and organic matter. Testing such impacts upon populations of organisms (i.e. at the catchment scale) has not proven straightforward and differences have emerged in the conclusions reached. This is: (1) partly because different studies have focused upon different scales of enquiry; but also (2) because the emphasis upon upstream land cover has rarely addressed the extent to which such land covers are hydrologically connected, and hence able to deliver diffuse pollution, to the drainage network However, there is a third issue. In order to develop suitable hydrological models, we need to conceptualise the process cascade. To do this, we need to know what matters to the organism being impacted by the hydrological system, such that we can identify which processes need to be modelled. Acquiring such knowledge is not easy, especially for organisms like fish that might occupy very different locations in the river over relatively short periods of time. However, and inevitably, hydrological modellers have started by building up piecemeal the aspects of the problem that we think matter to fish. Herein, we report two developments: (a) for the case of sediment associated diffuse pollution from agriculture, a risk-based modelling framework, SCIMAP, has been developed, which is distinct because it has an explicit focus upon hydrological connectivity; and (b) we use spatially distributed ecological data to infer the processes and the associated process parameters that matter to salmonid fry. We apply the model to spatially distributed salmon and fry data from the River Eden, Cumbria, England. The analysis shows, quite surprisingly, that arable land covers are relatively unimportant as drivers of fry abundance. What matters most is intensive pasture, a land cover that could be associated with a number of stressors on salmonid fry (e.g. pesticides, fine sediment) and which allows us to identify a series of risky field locations, where this land cover is readily connected to the river system by overland flow. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Global and diffuse solar irradiances in urban and rural areas in southeast Brazil

The seasonal evolution of daily and hourly values of global and diffuse solar radiation at the surface are compared for the cities of Sao Paulo and Botucatu, both located in Southeast Brazil and representative of urban and rural areas, respectively. The comparisons are based on measurements of global and diffuse solar irradiance carried out at the surface during a six year simultaneous period in these two cities. Despite the similar latitude and altitude, the seasonal evolution of daily values indicate that Sao Paulo receives, during clear sky days, 7.8% less global irradiance in August and 5.1% less in June than Botucatu. On the other hand, Sao Paulo receives, during clear sky days, 3.6% more diffuse irradiance in August and 15.6% more in June than Botucatu. The seasonal variation of the diurnal cycle confirms these differences and indicates that they are more pronounced during the afternoon. The regional differences are related to the distance from the Atlantic Ocean, systematic penetration of the sea breeze and daytime evolution of the particulate matter in Sao Paulo. An important mechanism controlling the spatial distribution of solar radiation, on a regional scale, is the sea breeze penetration in Sao Paulo, bringing moisture and maritime aerosol that in turn further increases the solar radiation scattering due to pollution and further reduces the intensity of the direct component of solar radiation at the surface. Surprisingly, under clear sky conditions the atmospheric attenuation of solar radiation in Botucatu during winter - the biomass burning period due to the sugar cane harvest - is equivalent to that at Sao Paulo City, indicating that the contamination during sugar cane harvest in Southeast Brazil has a large impact in the solar radiation field at the surface.

Galactic outflows and the pollution of the galactic environment by supernovae

We here explore the effects of the SN explosions into the halo of star-forming galaxies like the Milky Way. Successive randomly distributed and clustered SNe explosions cause the formation of hot superbubbles that drive either fountains or galactic winds above the galactic disk, depending on the amount and concentration of energy that is injected by the SNe. In a galactic fountain, the ejected gas is re-captured by the gravitational potential and falls back onto the disk. From 3D non-equilibrium radiative cooling hydrodynamical simulations of these fountains, we find that they may reach altitudes up to about 5 kpc in the halo and thus allow for the formation of the so called intermediate-velocity-clouds (IVCs) which are often observed in the halos of disk galaxies. The high-velocity-clouds that are also observed but at higher altitudes (of up to 12 kpc) require another mechanism to explain their production. We argue that they could be formed either by the capture of gas from the intergalactic medium and/or by the action of magnetic fields that are carried to the halo with the gas in the fountains. Due to angular momentum losses to the halo, we find that the fountain material falls back to smaller radii and is not largely spread over the galactic disk. Instead, the SNe ejecta fall nearby the region where the fountain was produced, a result which is consistent with recent chemical models of the galaxy. The fall back material leads to the formation of new generations of molecular clouds and to supersonic turbulence feedback in the disk. (C) 2009 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The role of clouds in improving the regression model for hourly values of diffuse solar radiation

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Global and diffuse solar irradiances in urban and rural areas in southeast Brazil

The seasonal evolution of daily and hourly values of global and diffuse solar radiation at the surface are compared for the cities of São Paulo and Botucatu, both located in Southeast Brazil and representative of urban and rural areas, respectively. The comparisons are based on measurements of global and diffuse solar irradiance carried out at the surface during a six year simultaneous period in these two cities. Despite the similar latitude and altitude, the seasonal evolution of daily values indicate that São Paulo receives, during clear sky days, 7.8% less global irradiance in August and 5.1% less in June than Botucatu. on the other hand, São Paulo receives, during clear sky days, 3.6% more diffuse irradiance in August and 15.6% more in June than Botucatu. The seasonal variation of the diurnal cycle confirms these differences and indicates that they are more pronounced during the afternoon. The regional differences are related to the distance from the Atlantic Ocean, systematic penetration of the sea breeze and daytime evolution of the particulate matter in São Paulo. An important mechanism controlling the spatial distribution of solar radiation, on a regional scale, is the sea breeze penetration in São Paulo, bringing moisture and maritime aerosol that in turn further increases the solar radiation scattering due to pollution and further reduces the intensity of the direct component of solar radiation at the surface. Surprisingly, under clear sky conditions the atmospheric attenuation of solar radiation in Botucatu during winter - the biomass burning period due to the sugar cane harvest - is equivalent to that at São Paulo City, indicating that the contamination during sugar cane harvest in Southeast Brazil has a large impact in the solar radiation field at the surface.