Relación entre tiempo de atención al espejo y conductas indicadoras de autorreconocimiento en orangutanes (Pongo pygmaeus ) y siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus)

Para medir la capacidad de autorreconocimiento en el espejo en primates no humanos, el procedimiento usualmente utilizado consiste en registrar la frecuencia de comportamientos autodirigidos y autorreferidos. Los resultados obtenidos muestran una alta variabilidad entre sujetos pertenecientes a la misma especie. Este tipo de diferencias individuales no han podido ser explicadas. La hipótesis de trabajo establecer si pueden ser consecuencia de diferencias en el tiempo de atención al espejo. En la primera parte, se registró la cantidad de tiempo que los sujetos prestan atención al espejo y la cantidad de indicadores de autorreconocimiento que muestran. Los individuos que muestran mayores tiempos de atención también muestran frecuencias más altas de indicadores de autorreconocimiento, de acuerdo con una relación lineal entre ambas variables. En la segunda parte, se enriqueció el espejo para provocar un incremento del tiempo de atención en todos los sujetos. La frecuencia de indicadores de autorreconocimiento crece en comparación con una condición control. Los resultados demuestran que la frecuencia absoluta de indicadores de autorreconocimiento está fuertemente afectada por el tiempo de atención al espejo en sujetos de las mismas especies. Un análisis ad hoc. de los datos revela que la frecuencia relativa de conductas de autorreconocimiento sobre el número total de conductas está sólo ligeramente influida por el tiempo de atención y es independiente del nivel de actividad global y, por tanto, podría ser una medida más robusta de autorreconocimiento. De acuerdo a los resultados, los cambios en el tiempo de atención podrían explicar parte de la variabilidad intraespecífica hallada en los estudios de autorreconocimiento en el espejo. Las posibles implicaciones para las diferencias interespecíficas han de ser exploradas en diferentes estudios. Los experimentos han sido realizados en el Parque Zoológico de Barcelona de Febrero de 2007 a Julio de 2007. El proyecto ha tenido una duración global de 14 meses.

Thermal energetics and torpor in the common pipistrelle bat, Pipistrellus pipistrellus (Vespertilionidae: Mammalia).

Rate of metabolism and body temperature were studied between -6°C and 38°C in the common pipistrelle bat Pipistrellus pipistrellus (Vespertilionidae), a European species lying close to the lower end of the mammalian size range (body mass 4.9±0.8g, N=28). Individuals maintained only occasionally a normothermic body temperature averaging 35.4±1.1°C (N=4) and often showed torpor during metabolic runs. The thermoneutral zone was found above 33°C, and basal rate of metabolism averaged 7.6±0.8mL O(2)h(-1) (N=28), which is 69% of the value predicted on the basis of body mass. Minimal wet thermal conductance was 161% of the expected value. During torpor, the rate of metabolism was related exponentially to body temperature with a Q(10) value of 2.57. Torpid bats showed intermittent ventilation, with the frequency of ventilatory cycles increasing exponentially with body temperature. Basal rate of metabolism (BMR) varied significantly with season and body temperature, but not with body mass. It was lower before the hibernation period than during the summer. The patterns observed are generally consistent with those exhibited by other vespertilionids of temperate regions. However, divergences occur with previous measurements on European pipistrelles, and the causes of the seasonal variation in BMR, which has only rarely been searched for among vespertilionids, remain to be examined.

Swimming and diving behavior in apes (Pan troglodytes and Pongo pygmaeus): first documented report

Extant hominoids, including humans, are well known for their inability to swim instinctively. We report swimming and diving in two captive apes using visual observation and video recording. One common chimpanzee and one orangutan swam repeatedly at the water surface over a distance of 2-6 m; both individuals submerged repeatedly. We show that apes are able to overcome their negative buoyancy by deliberate swimming, using movements which deviate from the doggy-paddle pattern observed in other primates. We suggest that apes' poor swimming ability is due to behavioral, anatomical, and neuromotor changes related to an adaptation to arboreal life in their early phylogeny. This strong adaptive focus on arboreal life led to decreased opportunities to interact with water bodies and consequently to a reduction of selective pressure to maintain innate swimming behavior. As the doggy paddle is associated with quadrupedal walking, a deviation from terrestrial locomotion might have interfered with the fixed rhythmic action patterns responsible for innate swimming.

Die Getreidehalmwespe, Cephus pygmaeus L.

Von Dr. Georg Ihssen

Projected near-future CO2 levels increase activity and alter defensive behaviours in the tropical squid Idiosepius pygmaeus

Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels projected to occur in the oceans by the end of this century cause a range of behavioural effects in fish, but whether other highly active marine organisms, such as cephalopods, are similarly affected is unknown. We tested the effects of projected future CO2 levels (626 and 956 µatm) on the behaviour of male two-toned pygmy squid, Idiosepius pygmaeus. Exposure to elevated CO2 increased the number of active individuals by 19-25% and increased movement (number of line-crosses) by nearly 3 times compared to squid at present-day CO2. Squid vigilance and defensive behaviours were also altered by elevated CO2 with >80% of individuals choosing jet escape responses over defensive arm postures in response to a visual startle stimulus, compared with 50% choosing jet escape responses at control CO2. In addition, more escape responses were chosen over threat behaviours in body pattern displays at elevated CO2 and individuals were more than twice as likely to use ink as a defence strategy at 956 µatm CO2, compared with controls. Increased activity could lead to adverse effects on energy budgets as well as increasing visibility to predators. A tendency to respond to a stimulus with escape behaviours could increase survival, but may also be energetically costly and could potentially lead to more chases by predators compared with individuals that use defensive postures. These results demonstrate that projected future ocean acidification affects the behaviours of a tropical squid species.

Seed and vegetative propagation methods for the rare Florida native species Chionanthus pygmaeus (pygmy fringetree)

Chionanthus pygmaeus Small (pygmy fringetree) (Oleaceae) is an endemic and rare Florida species, which has an attractive, small habit giving it great potential for use in managed landscapes. Members of the genus Chionanthus are difficult to propagate via cuttings and possess complex seed dormancies that are not well understood. Conservation of pygmy fringetree and its potential for commercial propagation for use in managed landscapes is contingent on a better understanding of its complex seed dormancy and enhancement of its propagation. I conducted two experiments to assess sexual and asexual propagation methods for pygmy fringetree. The first experiment was conducted to determine what factors are involved in overcoming seed dormancy. Various scarification treatments, which mimicked conditions seeds are exposed to in the wild, were investigated to determine their effects on germination of 20-year-old seeds originally collected from the species’ native range. Treatments included endocarp removal, sulfuric acid, boiling-water, and smoke-water treatments. Prior to treatment initiation, seed viability was estimated to be 12%. Treated seeds went through two cold- and two warm-stratification periods of 4°C and 25°C, respectively, in a dark growth chamber. After 180 days, none of the treatments induced early germination. Seeds were then tested for viability, which was 11%. Seed dormancy of the species is apparently complex, allowing some of the seeds to retain some degree of viability, but without dormancy requirements satisfied. The second experiment was conducted to assess if pygmy fringetree could be successfully propagated via hardwood or root cuttings if the appropriate combination of environmental conditions and hormones were applied. Hardwood and root cuttings were treated with either 1000 ppm IBA talc, 8000 ppm IBA talc, or inert talc. All cuttings were placed on a mist bench in a greenhouse for 9 weeks. Hardwood cuttings were supplemented with bottom heat at 24 °C. No treatments were successful in inducing adventitious root formation. I conclude that pygmy fringetree seeds possess complex dormancy that was not able to be overcome by the treatments utilized. However, this result is confounded by the age of the seeds used in the experiment. I also conclude that vegetative propagation of pygmy fringetree is highly dependent on the time of year cuttings are harvested. Further research of both seed and asexual propagation methods need to be explored before pygmy fringetree can be propagated on a commercial scale.

Mental evolution and development: Evidence for secondary representation in children, great apes, and other animals

Recent interest in the development and evolution of theory of mind has provided a wealth of information about representational skills in both children and animals, According to J, Perrier (1991), children begin to entertain secondary representations in the 2nd year of life. This advance manifests in their passing hidden displacement tasks, engaging in pretense and means-ends reasoning, interpreting external representations, displaying mirror self-recognition and empathic behavior, and showing an early understanding of mind and imitation. New data show a cluster of mental accomplishments in great apes that is very similar to that observed in 2-year-old humans. It is suggested that it is most parsimonious to assume that this cognitive profile is of homologous origin and that great apes possess secondary representational capacity. Evidence from animals other than apes is scant. This analysis leads to a number of predictions for future research.

Changes in progesterone and testosterone during the breeding season of the large-footed myotis Myotis moluccarum (Microchiroptera : Vespertilionidae)

The reproductive biology of the large-footed myotis, Myotis moluccarum, was studied during the annual breeding season in southeast Queensland, Australia. Previous research has shown the species to be polyoestrous and monotoccous, producing two consecutive young with some degree of synchrony in late October to early November and again in late January to early February. Hormonal data was collected and observations of the female reproductive tract made in order to ascertain the reproductive cycle of this species. In July, when females were not pregnant, progesterone concentrations were 1.9 +/- 0.9 ng/ml. During the two gestation periods, progesterone concentrations increased progressively until late pregnancy at the end of October through to early November and again in late January to early February. During the latest stages of pregnancy, progesterone concentrations of 69.9 +/- 18.7 ng/ml were reached. It is suggested that a plasma progesterone concentration in excess of about 8 ng/ml indicates pregnancy in this species. Plasma testosterone concentration in males reached a peak of 43.1 +/- 9.81 ng/ml in July, and was then variable until December when levels declined significantly to 2.0 +/- 1.7 ng/ml.

Mapping glider habitat in dry eucalypt forests for Montreal Process indicator 1.1: Fragmentation of forest types

Accurate habitat mapping is critical to landscape ecological studies such as required for developing and testing Montreal Process indicator 1.1e, fragmentation of forest types. This task poses a major challenge to remote sensing, especially in mixedspecies, variable-age forests such as dry eucalypt forests of subtropical eastern Australia. In this paper, we apply an innovative approach that uses a small section of one-metre resolution airborne data to calibrate a moderate spatial resolution model (30 m resolution; scale 1:50 000) based on Landsat Thematic Mapper data to estimate canopy structural properties in St Marys State Forest, near Maryborough, south-eastern Queensland. The approach applies an image-processing model that assumes each image pixel is significantly larger than individual tree crowns and gaps to estimate crown-cover percentage, stem density and mean crown diameter. These parameters were classified into three discrete habitat classes to match the ecology of four exudivorous arboreal species (yellowbellied glider Petaurus australis, sugar glider P. breviceps, squirrel glider P. norfolcensis , and feathertail glider Acrobates pygmaeus), and one folivorous arboreal marsupial, the greater glider Petauroides volans. These species were targeted due to the known ecological preference for old trees with hollows, and differences in their home range requirements. The overall mapping accuracy, visually assessed against transects (n = 93) interpreted from a digital orthophoto and validated in the field, was 79% (KHAT statistic = 0.72). The KHAT statistic serves as an indicator of the extent that the percentage correct values of the error matrix are due to ‘true’ agreement verses ‘chance’ agreement. This means that we are able to reliably report on the effect of habitat loss on target species, especially those with a large home range size (e.g. yellow-bellied glider). However, the classified habitat map failed to accurately capture the spatial patterning (e.g. patch size and shape) of stands with a trace or sub-dominance of senescent trees. This outcome makes the reporting of the effects of habitat fragmentation more problematic, especially for species with a small home range size (e.g. feathertail glider). With further model refinement and validation, however, this moderateresolution approach offers an important, cost eff e c t i v e advancement in mapping the age of dry eucalypt forests in the region.

Testing landscape metrics as indicators of habitat loss and fragmentation in continuous eucalypt forests (Queensland, Australia)

Landscape metrics are widely applied in landscape ecology to quantify landscape structure. However, many are poorly tested and require rigorous validation if they are to serve as reliable indicators of habitat loss and fragmentation, such as Montreal Process Indicator 1.1e. We apply a landscape ecology theory, supported by exploratory and confirmatory statistical techniques, to empirically test landscape metrics for reporting Montreal Process Indicator 1.1e in continuous dry eucalypt forests of sub-tropical Queensland, Australia. Target biota examined included: the Yellow-bellied Glider (Petaurus australis); the diversity of nectar and sap feeding glider species including P. australis, the Sugar Glider P. breviceps, the Squirrel Glider P. norfolcensis, and the Feathertail Glider Acrobates pygmaeus; six diurnal forest birds species; total diurnal bird species diversity; and the density of nectar-feeding diurnal bird species. Two scales of influence were considered: the stand-scale (2 ha), and a series of radial landscape extents (500 m - 2 km; 78 - 1250 ha) surrounding each fauna transect. For all biota, stand-scale structural and compositional attributes were found to be more influential than landscape metrics. For the Yellow-bellied Glider, the proportion of trace habitats with a residual element of old spotted-gum/ironbark eucalypt trees was a significant landscape metric at the 2 km landscape extent. This is a measure of habitat loss rather than habitat fragmentation. For the diversity of nectar and sap feeding glider species, the proportion of trace habitats with a high coefficient of variation in patch size at the 750 m extent was a significant landscape metric. None of the landscape metrics tested was important for diurnal forest birds. We conclude that no single landscape metric adequately captures the response of the region's forest biota per se. This poses a major challenge to regional reporting of Montreal Process Indicator 1.1e, fragmentation of forest types.

Ecology and neurophysiology of sleep in two wild sloth species

Study Objectives: Interspecific variation in sleep measured in captivity correlates with various physiological and environmental factors, including estimates of predation risk in the wild. However, it remains unclear whether prior comparative studies have been confounded by the captive recording environment. Herein we examine the impact of predation pressure on sleep in sloths living in the wild. Design: Comparison of two closely related sloth species, one exposed to predation and one free from predation. Setting: Panamanian mainland rainforest (predators present) and island mangrove (predators absent). Participants: Mainland (Bradypus variegatus, 5 males and 4 females) and island (Bradypus pygmaeus, 6 males) sloths. Interventions: None. Measurements and Results: EEG and EMG activity were recorded using a miniature data logger. Although both species spent between 9 and 10 hours per day sleeping, the mainland sloths showed a preference for sleeping at night, whereas island sloths showed no preference for sleeping during the day or night. EEG activity during NREM sleep showed lower low-frequency power, and increased spindle and higher frequency power in island sloths when compared to mainland sloths. Conclusions: In sloths sleeping in the wild, predation pressure influenced the timing of sleep, but not the amount of time spent asleep. The preference for sleeping at night in mainland sloths may be a strategy to avoid detection by nocturnal cats. The pronounced differences in the NREM sleep EEG spectrum remain unexplained, but might be related to genetic or environmental factors.

Development of specific ITS markers for plant DNA identification within herbivorous insects

DNA based techniques have proved to be very useful methods to study trophic relationships 17 between pests and their natural enemies. However, most predators are best defined as omnivores, 18 and the identification of plant-specific DNA should also allow the identification of the plant 19 species the predators have been feeding on. In this study, a PCR approach based on the 20 development of specific primers was developed as a self-marking technique to detect plant DNA 21 within the gut of one heteropteran omnivorous predator (Macrolophus pygmaeus) and two 22 lepidopteran pest species (Helicoverpa armigera and Tuta absoluta). Specific tomato primers 23 were designed from the ITS 1-2 region, which allowed the amplification of a tomato DNA 24 fragment of 332 bp within the three insect species tested in all cases (100% of detection at t = 0) 25 and did not detect DNA of other plants nor of the starved insects. Plant DNA half-lives at 25ºC 26 ranged from 5.8h, to 27.7h and 28.7h within M. pygmaeus, H. armigera and T. absoluta, 27 respectively. Tomato DNA detection within field collected M. pygmaeus suggests dietary mixing 28 in this omnivorous predator and showed a higher detection of tomato DNA in females and 29 nymphs than males. This study provides a useful tool to detect and to identify plant food sources 30 of arthropods and to evaluate crop colonization from surrounding vegetation in conservation 31 biological control programs.

The brown lacewings (Neuroptera, Hemerobiidae) of northwestern Turkey with new records, their spatio-temporal distribution and harbouring plants

The brown lacewings (Neuroptera, Hemerobiidae) of northwestern Turkey with new records, their spatio-temporal distribution and harbouring plants. The occurrence and spatio-temporal distribution of brown lacewing species (Neuroptera, Hemerobiidae) in Bursa province, northwestern Turkey, was investigated during 1999-2011. A total of 852 brown lacewing specimens of 20 species, including the genera of Hemerobius, Megalomus, Micromus, Sympherobius, and Wesmaelius were collected. Of these, 12 species were new records for northwestern Turkey while Sympherobius klapaleki is a new record for the Neuroptera fauna of Turkey. The most widespread species were Hemerobius handschini and Sympherobius pygmaeus with percent dominance values of 42.00 and 15.96%, respectively. Wesmaelius subnebulosus was the earliest emerging hemerobiid species and had the longest flight activity lasting from March to October. The species of southern origin characterized by the Mediterranean elements constituted 55% of the hemerobiid fauna and prevailed over the species of northern origin that belong to the Siberian centres. The total number of hemerobiid species reached a peak in July with captures of 15 species per month. There were 11, 13, 18 and 5 hemerobiid species occurring at altitudes between 1-500, 501-1000, 1001-1500 and 1500-2000 m, respectively. In addition, plant species harbouring hemerobiids are given for each species, and their association with the hemerobiid fauna is discussed.