Environmental indifference? A critique of environmentally deterministic theories of peatland archaeological site construction in Ireland

Climate change, whether gradual or sudden, has frequently been invoked as a causal factor to explain many aspects of cultural change during the prehistoric and early historic periods. Critiquing such theories has often proven difficult, not least because of the imprecise dating of many aspects of the palaeoclimate or archaeological records and the difficulties of merging the two strands of research. Here we consider one example of the archaeological record – peatland site construction in Ireland – which has previously been interpreted in terms of social response to climate change and examine whether close scrutiny of the archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records uphold the climatically deterministic hypotheses. We evaluate evidence for phasing in the temporal distribution of trackways and related sites in Irish peatlands, of which more than 3,500 examples have been recorded, through the examination of ~350 dendrochronological and 14C dates from these structures. The role of climate change in influencing when such sites were constructed is assessed by comparing visually and statistically the frequency of sites over the last 4,500 years with well-dated, multi-proxy climate reconstructions from Irish peatlands. We demonstrate that national patterns of “peatland activity” exist that indicate that the construction of sites in bogs was neither a constant nor random phenomenon. Phases of activity (i.e. periods in which the number of structures increased), as well as the ‘lulls’ that separate them, show no consistent correlation with periods of wetter or drier conditions on the bogs, suggesting that the impetus for the start or cessation of such activity was not climatically-determined. We propose that trigger(s) for peatland site construction in Ireland must instead also be sought within the wider, contemporary social background. Perhaps not surprisingly, a comparison with archaeological and palynological evidence shows that peatland activity tends to occur at times of more expansive settlement and land-use, suggesting that the bogs were used when the landscape was being more widely occupied. Interestingly, the lulls in peatland site construction coincide with transitional points between nominal archaeological phases, typically defined on the basis of their material culture, implying that there may indeed have been a cultural discontinuity at these times. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

CT scanning in archaeology

In this chapter we will review the use of x-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning in the field of archaeology. The story will be told in roughly chronological order, starting with the first reported use of a CT scanner in the field of archaeology and then look at some some possibilities for the future. Since the introduction of the x-ray CT scanner in the 1970’s the quality of the images has steadily improved enabling the role of the CT scanner to expand into the field of archaeology. In the context of this chapter, archaeology will be deemed to include the study of ancient human remains and artefacts but exclude remains from pre-history, which normally comes under the heading of palaeontology. (It would perhaps be appropriate to note that CT scanners have been successfully applied in the study of fossils). CT scans have mostly been used to study mummies but have also been used to examine other archaeological artefacts such as clay tablets, scrolls, pottery, bronze statues and swords.

Teacher professional standards : mirage or miracle cure - an archaeology of professionalism in education

This thesis is a problematisation of the development and implementation of professional standards as the mechanism to enhance professionalism and teacher quality in the teaching force within Australia and, more specifically, Queensland. Drawing on tools from Foucauldian archaeological analysis, the dominant discourses of professionalism from the academic literature, Australian federal and state policy documents and narratives from Queensland teachers are examined. These data sets are then cross referenced, analysing the intersections and divergences between the different texts. Findings suggest that through policy, political strategy and derisory statements from various authoritative voices, the managerial discourse of professionalism through professional standards documents has been unduly privileged as a means of regulating teachers, despite the fact that teachers themselves do not share this dominant notion of professionalism. The teachers in this study proffer ‘new classical-practical professionalism’ as a counter discourse, or discourse of resistance, to managerialism. However, an application of Foucault’s theorisations on power-knowledge reveals that their spoken discourses mean they are in fact yielding to the discourse of professional standards as docile bodies.

Teachers performing professionalism: A Foucauldian archaeology

Faced with the perceived need to redefine education for more economic utilitarian purposes, as well as to encourage compliance with government policies, Australia, like many other Anglophone nations, has engaged in numerous policy shifts resulting in performativity practices becoming commonplace in the educational landscape. A series of interviews with teachers from Queensland, Australia, in which they revealed their experiences of professionalism are examined archaeologically to reveal how they enact their roles in response to this performative agenda. Findings suggest that while there is some acceptance amongst teachers of the performative discourse, there is increasing resistance, which permits the construction of alternative or counter-discourses to the currently internationally pervasive performative climate.

What is plan B? Using Foucault’s archaeology to enhance policy analysis

Many governments in western democracies conduct the work of leading their societies forward through policy generation and implementation. Despite government attempts at extensive negotiation, collaboration and debate, the general populace in these same countries frequently express feelings of disempowerment and undue pressure to be compliant, often leading to disengagement. Here we outline Plan B: a process for examining how policies that emerge from good intentions are frequently interpreted as burdensome or irrelevant by those on whom they have an impact. Using a case study of professional standards for teachers in Australia, we describe how we distilled Foucault’s notions of archaeology into a research approach centring on the creation of ‘polyhedrons of intelligibility’ as an alternative approach by which both policy makers and those affected by their policies may understand how their respective causes are supported and adversely affected.

What is plan B? Using Foucault's archaeology to enhance policy analysis

Many governments in western democracies conduct the work of leading their societies forward through policy generation and implementation. Despite government attempts at extensive negotiation, collaboration and debate, the general populace in these same countries frequently express feelings of disempowerment and undue pressure to be compliant, often leading to disengagement. Here we outline Plan B: a process for examining how policies that emerge from good intentions are frequently interpreted as burdensome or irrelevant by those on whom they have an impact. Using a case study of professional standards for teachers in Australia, we describe how we distilled Foucault’s notions of archaeology into a research approach centring on the creation of ‘polyhedrons of intelligibility’ as an alternative approach by which both policy makers and those affected by their policies may understand how their respective causes are supported and adversely affected.

Archaeology of wings : Birds and people in the Baltic Sea region during the Stone Age

The prominent roles of birds, often mentioned in historical sources, are not well reflected in archaeological research. Absence or scarcity of bird bones in archaeological assemblages has been often seen as indication of a minor role of birds in the prehistoric economy or ideology, or explained by taphonomic loss. Few studies exist where birds form the basis for extensive archaeological interpretation. In this doctoral dissertation bird bone material from various Stone Age sites in the Baltic Sea region is investigated. The study period is approximately 7000-3400 BP, comprising mainly Neolithic cultures. The settlement material comes from Finland, Åland, Gotland, Saaremaa and Hiiumaa. Osteological materials are used for studying the economic and cultural importance of birds, fowling methods and principal fowling seasons. The bones were identified and earlier identifications partially checked with help of a reference material of modern skeletons. Fracture analysis was used in order to study the deposition history of bones at Ajvide settlement site. Birds in burials at two large cemeteries, Ajvide on Gotland and Zvejnieki in northern Latvia were investigated in order to study the roles of birds in burial practices. My study reveals that the economic importance of birds is at least seasonally often more prominent than usually thought, and varies greatly in different areas. Fowling has been most important in coastal areas, and especially during the breeding season. Waterbirds and grouse species were generally the most important groups in Finnish Stone Age economy. The identified species composition shows much resemblance to contemporary hunting with species such as the mallard and capercaillie commonly found. Burial materials and additional archaeological evidence from Gotland, Latvia and some other parts of northern Europe indicate that birds –e.g., jay, whooper swan, ducks – have been socially and ideologically important for the studied groups (indicating a place in the belief system, e.g. clan totemism). The burial finds indicate that some common ideas about waterbirds (perhaps as messengers or spirit helpers) might have existed in the northern European Stone Age.

Mycorrhizal fungi and nitrogen dynamics in drained peatland

Fungi have a fundamental role in carbon and nutrient transformations in the acids soils of boreal regions, such as peatlands, where high amounts of carbon (C) and nutrients are stored in peat, the pH is relatively low and the nutrient uptake of trees is highly dependent on mycorrhizae. In this thesis, the aim was to examine nitrogen (N) transformations and the availability of dissolved N compounds in forestry-drained peatlands, to compare the fungal community biomass and structure at various peat N levels, to investigate the growth of ectomycorrhizal fungi with variable P and K availability and to assess how the ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM) affect N transformations. Both field and laboratory experiments were carried out. The peat N concentration did not affect the soil fungal community structure within a site. Phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) deficiency of the trees as well as the degree of decomposition and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) concentration of the peat were shown to affect the fungal community structure and biomass of ECMs, highlighting the complexity of the below ground system on drained peatlands. The biomass of extrametrical mycorrhizal mycelia (EMM) was enhanced by P and/or K deficiency of the trees, and ECM biomass in the roots was increased by P deficiency. Thus, PK deficiency in drained peatlands may increase the allocation of C by the tree to ECMs. It was also observed that fungi can alter N mineralization processes in the rhizosphere but variously depending on fungal species and fertility level of peat. Gross N mineralization did not vary but the net N mineralization rate significantly increased along the N gradient in both field and laboratory experiments. Gross N immobilization also significantly increased when the peat N concentration increased. Nitrification was hardly detectable in either field or laboratory experiments. During the growing season, dissolved inorganic N (DIN) fluctuated much more than the relatively stable DON. Special methodological challenges associated with sampling and analysis in microbial studies on peatlands are discussed.

Archaeology and authenticity

In this master s thesis, I have discussed the question of authenticity in postprocessual archaeology. Modern archaeology is a product of the modern world, and postprocessual archaeology in turn is strongly influenced by postmodernism. The way authenticity has been understood in processual archaeology is largely dictated by the modern condition. The understanding of authenticity in postprocessual archaeology, however, rests on notions of simulation and metaphor. It has been argued by postprocessual archaeologists that the past can be experienced by metaphor, and that the relationship between now and then is of a metaphorical kind. In postprocessual archaeology, authenticity has been said to be contextual. This view has been based on a contextualist understanding of the meanings of language and metaphor. I argue that, besides being based on metaphor, authenticity is a conventional attribute based on habits of acting, which in turn have their basis in the material world and the materiality of objects. Authenticity is material meaning, and that meaning can be found out by studying the objects as signs in a chain of signification called semiosis. Authenticity therefore is semiosis.

Response of fungal and actinobacterial communities to water-level drawdown in boreal peatland sites

"We used PCR-DGGE fingerprinting and direct sequencing to analyse the response of fungal and actinobacterial communities to changing hydrological conditions at 3 different sites in a boreal peatland complex in Finland. The experimental design involved a short-term (3 years; STD) and a long-term (43 years; LTD) water-level drawdown. Correspondence analyses of DGGE bands revealed differences in the communities between natural sites representing the nutrient-rich mesotrophic fen, the nutrient-poorer oligotrophic fen, and the nutrient-poor ombrotrophic bog. Still, most fungi and actinobacteria found in the pristine peatland seemed robust to the environmental variables. Both fungal and actinobacterial diversity was higher in the fens than in the bog. Fungal diversity increased significantly after STD whereas actinobacterial diversity did not respond to hydrology. Both fungal and actinobacterial communities became more similar between peatland types after LTD, which was not apparent after STD. Most sequences clustered equally between the two main fungal phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Sequencing revealed that basidiomycetes may respond more (either positively or negatively) to hydrological changes than ascomycetes. Overall, our results suggest that fungal responses to water-level drawdown depend on peatland type. Actinobacteria seem to be less sensitive to hydrological changes, although the response of some may similarly depend on peatland type. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved."

Carbon Dioxide emissions from an Acacia plantation on peatland in Sumatra, Indonesia

Abstract. Peat surface CO2 emission, groundwater table depth and peat temperature were monitored for two years along transects in an Acacia plantation on thick tropical peat (>4 m) in Sumatra, Indonesia. A total of 2300 emission measurements were taken at 144 locations. The autotrophic root respiration component of the CO2 emission was separated from heterotrophic emissions caused by peat oxidation in three ways: (i) by comparing CO2 emissions within and beyond the tree rooting zone, (ii) by comparing CO2 emissions with and without peat trenching (i.e. cutting any roots remaining in the peat beyond the tree rooting zone), and (iii) by comparing CO2 emissions before and after Acacia tree harvesting. On average, the contribution of root respiration to daytime CO2 emission is 21 % along transects in mature tree stands. At locations 0.5 m from trees this is up to 80 % of the total emissions, but it is negligible at locations more than 1.3 m away. This means that CO2 emission measurements well away from trees are free of any root respiration contribution and thus represent only peat oxidation emission. We find daytime mean annual CO2 emission from peat oxidation alone of 94 t ha−1 yr−1 at a mean water table depth of 0.8 m, and a minimum emission value of 80 t ha−1 yr−1 after correction for the effect of diurnal temperature fluctuations, which resulted in a 14.5 % reduction of the daytime emission. There is a positive correlation between mean long-term water table depths and peat oxidation CO2 emission. However, no such relation is found for instantaneous emission/water table depth within transects and it is clear that factors other than water table depth also affect peat oxidation and total CO2 emissions. The increase in the temperature of the surface peat due to plantation development may explain over 50 % of peat oxidation emissions.