I’m not like everybody else - online forums and PLT

This paper reports some of the findings from a study undertaken as part of the research component for a master of professional education and training degree.
The objectives of the study were to investigate students’ perceptions and satisfaction regarding CMC activities, including community of inquiry framework elements and self-system factors, and to frame recommendations that might improve the use of online discussions as a teaching medium in practical legal training.
A literature review identified themes arising from previous studies concerning the use of CMC in adult learning. The elements of the Community of Inquiry framework and Marzano and Kendall’s concept of students’ Self System were used as reference points to frame the study.
An online questionnaire was used to collect data from students who had undertaken online discussion activities as part of their practical legal training in the professional responsibility in New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria. The data included the students’ opinions, attitudes and perceptions regarding the online discussions. The data was analysed using descriptive statistics that tended to indicate the participants were satisfied with online discussions as teaching medium for PLT. Tests for association between certain variables conducted using Barnard’s Exact Test disclosed 30 possible associations.
This paper focuses on part of the findings, namely associations between the participants’ attributes and contexts, student-student interactions, and satisfaction with the learning experience.
Further research specifically concerning the design and delivery of blended programs of practical legal training would be beneficial. Further study involving quantitative and qualitative methods and regarding the use of computer-mediated communications in PLT is recommended.

A good chat - are online forums fit for PLT? - a review

The effectiveness of asynchronous Online Discussion Forums (ODF) as a teaching medium in Practical Legal Training (PLT) is dependent on factors affecting student satisfaction with the learning task.
A literature review was undertaken as part of a proposed research project to: (a) investigate the relationship between the use of ODF as a teaching medium in PLT, students’ learning behaviours, and student satisfaction; (b) ascertain students’ perceptions of their own learning behaviours during the ODF activities and to compare those perceptions with learning behaviours identified in the Community of Inquiry Framework; and (c) make recommendations that might improve the fit between the use of ODFs, positive learning behaviours, and student satisfaction. The research project is still underway.
The review and the proposed study is framed by a constructivist learner-centred approach informed by the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky and others, together with Marzano and Kendall’s ‘New Taxonomy of Education Objectives’, and the ‘Community of Inquiry Framework’ described by Archer, Garrison, Arbaugh, Gunawardena and others.
A search for articles with abstracts including the terms ‘satisfaction’ and ‘online’ on ERIC and online peer-reviewed journals during September 2010 produced 76 relevant articles for this review; these disclosed that factors involving student satisfaction with ODFs as a teaching medium include: students’ contexts; students’ perceptions of self-efficacy and of the importance and relevance of the learning task; learning and personality styles; technological self-efficacy; student-student and lecturer-student interactions; flexible learning environments; instructional design; online learning management systems; and the blend of online and face-to-face instruction delivery.
These factors are likely to be significant for framing the proposed research and the design, implementation, and evaluation of instruction involving online forums in practical legal training.

PLT practitioners : soldiers For “vocationalism”, or double agents?

This presentation extends on some previous work around my PhD research.
I question ways in which social structures are inscribed into legal education practices, and conversely, whether practices can modify those structures. I argue PLT practitioners are not simply soldiers for a “vocationalist” strategy. Instead, I re-imagine PLT practitioners as “double agents” or “resistance fighters”, lamplighters in a still emergent professional trajectory. It is a trajectory catalysed by the 1970s introduction of institutional PLT; just a baby really, in the context of English common law.

In Bourdieu’s terms it is possible, by revisiting past struggles in Australian legal education, to conceptualise institutional PLT as the product of judicial, professional, and academic struggles to produce a vocationalised, non-academic, and critique-free sub-field within the juridical field. Those struggles succeeded, to some extent, in the extra-individual dimension of structures, regulation, and institutions, to collectively inculcate preferred dispositions within individuals about legal education and professional identity.

That account, however, ignores the potential for agency and alterity – the ways in which individuals might appropriate, in Certeau’s terms, the resources of the legal field to explore new professional trajectories. For some, these trajectories involve struggles to enrich, and add texture to, legal education. Drawing on interviews with PLT practitioners, I identify multi-vocal and multi-perspectival themes, including notions of social justice, equality, professional ethics, personal improvement, and indeed, interest in scholarship of teaching and learning.

It is in this sense I re-imagine PLT practitioners as “double agents”, operating betwixt and between dominant domains in law. In my view, PLT practitioners can participate in conceptualising and developing emergent approaches in legal education, and to theorise “practice” as lawyers and educators. Scholarship of teaching and learning has its part to play in this. It provides a means, as lawyers and as educators, to discover information, to reflect, critique, communicate, and conceptualise, insights about “practice” and practices.

Australian PLT practitioners’ engagements with scholarship of teaching and learning

 Drawing on Bourdieu’s reflexive sociology and Certeau’s heterological science to investigate individual and extra-individual dimensions of Australian PLT practitioners’ engagements with scholarship of teaching and learning, this thesis identified obstacles and opportunities for recognition of professional legal education and training as emergent professional practice in law and education.

Nanosized lead lanthanum titanate (PLT) ceramic powders synthesized by the oxidant peroxo method

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Filmes finos de Titanato de Chumbo e Lantânio - PLT: influência do pH

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Luminescence effect in amorphous PLT

Amorphous and crystalline powder of PLT phase was synthesized by using the Pechini method. Infrared (FTIR) analysis of the polymeric resin shows intense bands of organic materials from 250 to 1620 cm(-1). X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectra of calcined powder at different temperatures show amorphous phase at 450 degrees C/3 h, semi-crystalline phase at 550 degrees C/3 h and a crystalline phase at 800 degrees C/3 h. Luminescence effect was observed in amorphous powder calcined from 300 to 350 degrees/3 h with broad absorption peaks in 579 nm at 300 degrees C/3 h and 603 rum at 350 degrees C/3 h, respectively. The photoluminescence effect is attributed to emissions of Ti -> 0 directly from the oxygen 2p orbital (valence band) to the titanate 3d orbital (conduction bands). (c) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Age of blood and recipient factors determine the severity of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)

Introduction Critical care patients frequently receive blood transfusions. Some reports show an association between aged or stored blood and increased morbidity and mortality, including the development of transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). However, the existence of conflicting data endorses the need for research to either reject this association, or to confirm it and elucidate the underlying mechanisms. Methods Twenty-eight sheep were randomised into two groups, receiving saline or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Sheep were further randomised to also receive transfusion of pooled and heat-inactivated supernatant from fresh (Day 1) or stored (Day 42) non-leucoreduced human packed red blood cells (PRBC) or an infusion of saline. TRALI was defined by hypoxaemia during or within two hours of transfusion and histological evidence of pulmonary oedema. Regression modelling compared physiology between groups, and to a previous study, using stored platelet concentrates (PLT). Samples of the transfused blood products also underwent cytokine array and biochemical analyses, and their neutrophil priming ability was measured in vitro. Results TRALI did not develop in sheep that first received saline-infusion. In contrast, 80% of sheep that first received LPS-infusion developed TRALI following transfusion with "stored PRBC." The decreased mean arterial pressure and cardiac output as well as increased central venous pressure and body temperature were more severe for TRALI induced by "stored PRBC" than by "stored PLT." Storage-related accumulation of several factors was demonstrated in both "stored PRBC" and "stored PLT", and was associated with increased in vitro neutrophil priming. Concentrations of several factors were higher in the "stored PRBC" than in the "stored PLT," however, there was no difference to neutrophil priming in vitro. Conclusions In this in vivo ovine model, both recipient and blood product factors contributed to the development of TRALI. Sick (LPS infused) sheep rather than healthy (saline infused) sheep predominantly developed TRALI when transfused with supernatant from stored but not fresh PRBC. "Stored PRBC" induced a more severe injury than "stored PLT" and had a different storage lesion profile, suggesting that these outcomes may be associated with storage lesion factors unique to each blood product type. Therefore, the transfusion of fresh rather than stored PRBC may minimise the risk of TRALI.

Bridging the biology of the ovine TRALI model – human inflammatory cell responses to TRALI inducing supernatants

Background Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is a serious and potentially fatal consequence of transfusion. A two-event TRALI model demonstrated date-of-expiry - day (D) 5 platelet (PLT) and D42 packed red blood cell (PRBC) supernatants (SN) induced TRALI in LPS-treated sheep. We have adapted a whole blood transfusion culture model as an investigative bridge between the ovine TRALI model human responses to transfusion. Methods A whole blood transfusion model was adapted to replicate the ovine model - specifically +/- 0.23μg/mL LPS as the first event and 10% SN volume (transfusion) as the second event. Four pooled SN from blood products, previously used in the TRALI ovine model, were investigated: D1-PLT, D5-PLT, D1-PRBC, and D42-PRBC. Fresh human whole blood (recipient) was mixed with combinations of LPS and BP-SN stimuli and incubated in vitro for 6 hrs. Addition of golgi plug enabled measurement of monocyte cytokine production (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, TNF-α, IL-1α, CXCL-5, IP-10, MIP-1α, MCP-1) using multi-colour flow cytometry. Responses for 6 recipients were assessed. Results In the presence of LPS, D42-PRBC-SN significantly increased monocyte IL-6 (P=0.031), IL-8 (P=0.016) and IL-1α (P=0.008) production compared to D1-PRBC-SN. This response to D42-PRBC-SN was LPS-dependent, and was not evident in non-LPSstimulated controls. This response was also specific to D42-PRBC-SN, as similar changes were not evident for the D5-PLT-SN, compared to the D1-PLT-SN, regardless of the presence of LPS. D5-PLT-SN significantly increased IL-12 production (P=0.024) compared to D1-PLT-SN. This response was again LPS-dependent. Conclusions These data demonstrate a novel two-event mechanism of monocyte inflammatory response that was dependent upon both the presence of date-of-expiry blood product SN and LPS. Further, these results demonstrate different cytokines responses induced by date-of-expiry PLT-SN and PRBC-SN. These data are consistent with the evidence from the ovine TRALI model, and enhancing its relevance to transfusion related changes in humans.

Performance-Based Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) Acceptance Procedures for In-Place Soil Testing Phase 3

One of the objectives of this study was to evaluate soil testing equipment based on its capability of measuring in-place stiffness or modulus values. As design criteria transition from empirical to mechanistic-empirical, soil test methods and equipment that measure properties such as stiffness and modulus and how they relate to Florida materials are needed. Requirements for the selected equipment are that they be portable, cost effective, reliable, a ccurate, and repeatable. A second objective is that the selected equipment measures soil properties without the use of nuclear materials.The current device used to measure soil compaction is the nuclear density gauge (NDG). Equipment evaluated in this research included lightweight deflectometers (LWD) from different manufacturers, a dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP), a GeoGauge, a Clegg impact soil tester (CIST), a Briaud compaction device (BCD), and a seismic pavement analyzer (SPA). Evaluations were conducted over ranges of measured densities and moistures.Testing (Phases I and II) was conducted in a test box and test pits. Phase III testing was conducted on materials found on five construction projects located in the Jacksonville, Florida, area. Phase I analyses determined that the GeoGauge had the lowest overall coefficient of variance (COV). In ascending order of COV were the accelerometer-type LWD, the geophone-type LWD, the DCP, the BCD, and the SPA which had the highest overall COV. As a result, the BCD and the SPA were excluded from Phase II testing.In Phase II, measurements obtained from the selected equipment were compared to the modulus values obtained by the static plate load test (PLT), the resilient modulus (MR) from laboratory testing, and the NDG measurements. To minimize soil and moisture content variability, the single spot testing sequence was developed. At each location, test results obtained from the portable equipment under evaluation were compared to the values from adjacent NDG, PLT, and laboratory MR measurements. Correlations were developed through statistical analysis. Target values were developed for various soils for verification on similar soils that were field tested in Phase III. The single spot testing sequence also was employed in Phase III, field testing performed on A-3 and A-2-4 embankments, limerock-stabilized subgrade, limerock base, and graded aggregate base found on Florida Department of Transportation construction projects. The Phase II and Phase III results provided potential trend information for future research—specifically, data collection for in-depth statistical analysis for correlations with the laboratory MR for specific soil types under specific moisture conditions. With the collection of enough data, stronger relationships could be expected between measurements from the portable equipment and the MR values. Based on the statistical analyses and the experience gained from extensive use of the equipment, the combination of the DCP and the LWD was selected for in-place soil testing for compaction control acceptance. Test methods and developmental specifications were written for the DCP and the LWD. The developmental specifications include target values for the compaction control of embankment, subgrade, and base materials.

Euran emännän neulakintaat : Tutkielma Luistarin haudan 56 neulakinnasfragmenteista

Tutkielman tavoitteena on tuottaa neulakinnasrekonstruktio Euran Luistarin kalmiston haudan 56 neulakinnasfragmenttien pohjalta. Hauta on tutkittu vuonna 1969, jolloin kalmistoalueen arkeologiset kaivaukset aloitettiin. Haudan löytöjen perusteella on aikaisemmin tehty kokonainen pukurekonstruktio, Euran muinaispuku. Luistarin hauta 56 on ruumishauta ja se on tehty naisvainajalle rautakaudella, 1000-luvun alkupuolella jKr. Neulakinnastekniikalla on valmistettu neuloksia jo tuhansia vuosia. Eri neulakinnastekniikoita on yritetty kuvata useilla teorioilla, joista paras lienee Egon H. Hansenin merkintätapa. Suomalaisen kansanperinteen mukaan maassamme on tehty neuleita kolmella erilaisella neulakinnastekniikalla: suomeksi , venäjäksi ja pyöräyttäen . Luistarin haudan 56 neulakinnastekniikalla valmistetut tekstiilifragmentit löytyivät vainajan vatsalta suuren puukontupen päältä sekä kämmenluiden ja sormusten yhteydestä. Fragmentteja saatiin kaivauksissa talteen yhteensä kuusi, joista suurin on kooltaan 6x9 cm. Fragmentit on sijaintinsa perusteella tulkittu kintaiden jäänteiksi. Hautaustilanteessa kintaat ovat ilmeisesti sijainneet vainajan vatsalla, eivätkä käsiin puettuina, sillä fragmentteja ei löytynyt kaikkien sormusten yhteydestä. Myös eräistä muista rautakautisista ruumishaudoista on löydetty neulakintaiden jäänteitä. Luistarin haudan 56 neulakinnasfragmenteista on tutkittu valmistustekniikka, lankojen paksuudet ja kierteisyydet. Selkeänä erottuvat kolme väriä on tulkittu mikroskooppitarkastelussa siniseksi, punaiseksi ja keltaiseksi. Pieni punaisen kerroksen pätkä aivan suurimman fragmentin reunassa on tulkittu peukalon tyveksi. Muita Suomesta löytyneitä rautakautisia neulakinnasfragmentteja ja niistä saatuja tietoja on käytetty vertailuaineistona. Kinnasrekonstruktioon käytetyt langat on värjätty luonnonväreillä. Värjäyksessä on käytetty osittain nykypäivän keinoja, mutta niin, että lopputulos poikkeaisi mahdollisimman vähän muinaistekniikoilla tehdystä. Punainen lanka on värjätty värimataralla eli krapilla, keltainen kanervalla ja sininen luonnonindigolla. Kintaiden muotoilu perustuu suomalaiseen neulakinnastraditioon ja lähialueiltamme löytyneisiin keskiaikaisiin neulakintaisiin.

Kahden ikäryhmän raahelaisten käsityksiä suomen murteista

Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan, millaisia käsityksiä Raahessa Pohjois-Pohjanmaalla asuvilla, kahta eri ikäryhmää (nuoret ja aikuiset) edustavilla maallikoilla on suomen murteista. Tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää, poikkeavatko nuorten ja aikuisten käsitykset toisistaan, ja millaisia mahdolliset erot ovat. Toisena kysymyksenä on tutkia, miten käsityksissä muista murteista näkyvät informanttien oma pohjoispohjalainen murre ja informanttien mielteet siitä. Tutkielma kuuluu kansandialektologiseen tutkimusalaan. Tutkielman aineistona ovat lomakekyselyvastaukset 65 lukiolaiselta ja 63 aikuiselta raahelaiselta. Kyselyn ensimmäisessä osassa vastaajien tuli rajata Suomen kartalle murrealueet oman käsityksensä mukaan ja kuvailla murteita. Toisen osan kyselyssä muodostavat kuuntelunäytetehtävät, joissa informanteille soitettiin lyhyitä murrenäytteitä, jotka heidän tuli perustellen sijoittaa kartalle ja joita heidän tuli arvioida viidentoista adjektiiviparin avulla. Tutkielmassa selviää, että ryhmätasolla nuorten ja aikuisten murrekäsitysten välillä on ensinnäkin sellaisia eroja, joiden voi tulkita johtuvan vastaajien kuulumisesta eri sukupolviin. Aikuisten käsityksistä näkyvät vahvasti vanhat heimostereotypiat: murteita nimetään maakuntien mukaan ja kuvaillaan vakiintunein kansanlingvistisin termein ("viäntää", "puhua h:n päältä"). Nuoret erottelevat kartalle vähemmän murteita kuin aikuiset, ja aluejaoissa näkyy uuden läänijaon vaikutus. Eteläsuomalainen puhetapa on aineiston perusteella merkityksellisempi nuorille kuin aikuisille: he näyttävät tunnistavan sen piirteitä herkemmin kuin aikuiset, ja lukiolaisten asenteet pääkaupunkiseutulaista puhetapaa kohtaan ovat kielteisempiä kuin aikuisten asenteet. Aikuiset asennoituvat kielteisesti erityisesti lounaismurteisiin. Iän ja kokemusten vaikutus murrekäsityksiin näkyy siinä, että aikuiset tunnistavat varieteetteja tarkemmin ja sijoittavat ääninäytteiden puhujat lähemmäs näiden todellisia kotipaikkoja kuin nuoret. Vastaajien oma murre näkyy käsityksissä muista murteista siten, että sellaisia piirteitä, jotka vastaajat liittävät vahvasti omaan murteeseensa (svaavokaali, yleisgeminaatio ja mää, sää, nää -pronominit), he eivät tuo esiin kuvaillessaan muita murteita. Myös muunmurteiset puhujat sijoitetaan puhenäytetehtävässä toisinaan vastaajien omalle murrealueelle näiden piirteiden perusteella. Erityisesti kuuntelunäytetehtävien tulokset antavat aihetta kyseenalaistaa karttojen ja murteiden maantieteellisen paikantamisen mielekkyyttä. Varsinkin lukiolaiset näyttävät paikantavan varieteetteja myös muuten, esimerkiksi akseleilla maalainen–kaupunkilainen ja eteläinen–pohjoinen. Tästä kertoo myös se tutkimustulos, että siihen, miten vastaajat puhenäytetehtävässä arvioivat kuulemiaan varieteetteja, ei juuri vaikuta se, miten vastaajat paikantavat puhujan maantieteellisesti.

Päällekkäispuhunta suomalaisessa ja virolaisessa arkikeskustelussa: mitä, missä ja milloin

Tutkielmassa perehdytään suomalaisessa ja virolaisessa arkikeskustelussa esiintyvään päällekkäispuhuntaan keskustelunanalyyttisella menetelmällä. Aineistona on käytetty tuttavien välisiä, kasvokkaisia arkikeskusteluja. Aineistoa on kolmesta suomalaisesta ja kolmesta virolaisesta keskustelusta yhteensä noin tunti kummallakin kielellä. Tutkielman tarkoituksena on selvittää päällekkäispuhunnan esiintymistä yleisellä tasolla: mitä päällekkäin aloitetuilla vuoroilla tehdään ja millaisissa keskustelun tilanteissa päällekkäispuhuntaa käytetään, sekä missä kohden edellistä vuoroa päällekkäisenä alkava vuoro aloitetaan. Tutkielmassa myös vertaillaan suomalaista ja virolaista päällekkäispuhuntaa toisiinsa lähinnä laadullisesti. Tärkeiksi käsitteiksi nousevat vuoro, vuoron rakenneyksikkö, vuoronvaihdon mahdollistava kohta, keskustelun puhetila sekä vuorottelun sujuvuus. Päällekkäispuhuntana tuotetut vuorot jaetaan tutkielmassa kolmeen ryhmään, jotka esitellään omissa pääluvuissaan. Tutkimuksen mukaan osa päällekkäispuhunnasta on sellaista, jonka voi selittää vuorottelun ja vuorojen rakenteista käsin. Tällainen päällekkäisenä aloitettu seuraava vuoro alkaa hieman edellisen vuoron lopun päältä vuoron tullessa juuri valmiiksi eli vuoronvaihdon mahdollistavaan kohtaan. Vuoro voi alkaa jonkin verran aiemminkin, jolloin päällekkäisenä seuraavan vuoron aloittava puhuja näyttää ennakoivan, että edellinen vuoro on pian tulossa valmiiksi. Kolmas vuorottelun rakenteilla selittyvä päällekkäispuhunta liittyy tilanteeseen, jossa ketään ei ole valittu seuraavan vuoron käyttäjäksi. Tällöin kuka tahansa voi valita itsensä seuraavaksi puhujaksi, ja usein näin tekeekin useampi puhuja yhtä aikaa. Muiden päällekkäisyyksien analysoinnissa otetaan huomioon myös vuoron luonne ja tehtävä vuorovaikutuksessa. Nämä jaetaan edellä mainituin perustein kahteen ryhmään: osa päällekkäisyyksistä on luonteeltaan yhteistyöhakuisia, osa kilpailevia. Tässä jaottelussa keskeisenä tekijänä on se, pyrkiikö päällekkäin vuoronsa aloittava puhuja hallitsemaan keskustelun puhetilaa, vai tukeeko hän jonkun toisen puhujan puhetilan hallintaa. Toisen puhetilan hallintaa tukevia päällekkäisyyksiä on monentyyppisiä: kommentoivia dialogipartikkeleita, samanmielisyyden ja kiinnostuksen osoituksia, tarkistuskysymyksiä ja sanahaussa auttamista. Aineistosta löydetyt useat tiimiytymistapaukset osoittavat, että puhetilaa voidaan hallita myös yhdessä. Huumoriin ja nauruun liittyvät vuorot voivat olla sekä toisen puhetilan hallintaa tukevia että yhteisesti puhetilaa halliten tuotettuja. Sijaintinsa ja luonteensa perusteella kilpaileviksi määritellyt vuorot alkavat joko moniyksikköisen vuoron vuoronvaihdon mahdollistavassa kohdassa taikka vuoron rakenneyksikön keskeltä. Kilpailevan vuoron käyttäjä pyrkii saamaan puhetilan hallitsijan aseman itselleen. Useiden kilpailevina tuotettujen vuorojen voidaan sanoa jollakin tavalla rikkovan vuorottelun perussääntöjä, mutta tutkielmassa havaitaan, että siitä huolimatta ne harvoin aiheuttavat vuorovaikutukseen ongelmia tai häiriöitä. Tutkielmassa todetaan, että päällekkäispuhunta on tutkituissa suomalaisissa ja virolaisissa keskusteluissa laadultaan pääosin hyvin samankaltaista. Aineiston perusteella näyttää kuitenkin siltä, että virolaisissa keskusteluissa päällekkäispuhuntaa esiintyy yleisesti ottaen jonkin verran suomalaisia keskusteluja enemmän, ja kilpailevaa päällekkäispuhuntaa esiintyy jopa huomattavasti enemmän. Tutkielmassa havaitaan, että valtaosa kaikesta päällekkäispuhunnasta on ongelmatonta, ja sen esiintymisessä ja rakentumisessa näkyy keskustelijoiden pyrkimys sujuvaan vuorotteluun. Päällekkäispuhunnan todetaan olevan keskustelussa taajaan esiintyvää ja ennen kaikkea järjestäytynyttä toimintaa.

Technical efficiency of blood component preparation in blood centres of 10 European countries

Various reasons, such as ethical issues in maintaining blood resources, growing costs, and strict requirements for safe blood, have increased the pressure for efficient use of resources in blood banking. The competence of blood establishments can be characterized by their ability to predict the volume of blood collection to be able to provide cellular blood components in a timely manner as dictated by hospital demand. The stochastically varying clinical need for platelets (PLTs) sets a specific challenge for balancing supply with requests. Labour has been proven a primary cost-driver and should be managed efficiently. International comparisons of blood banking could recognize inefficiencies and allow reallocation of resources. Seventeen blood centres from 10 countries in continental Europe, Great Britain, and Scandinavia participated in this study. The centres were national institutes (5), parts of the local Red Cross organisation (5), or integrated into university hospitals (7). This study focused on the departments of blood component preparation of the centres. The data were obtained retrospectively by computerized questionnaires completed via Internet for the years 2000-2002. The data were used in four original articles (numbered I through IV) that form the basis of this thesis. Non-parametric data envelopment analysis (DEA, II-IV) was applied to evaluate and compare the relative efficiency of blood component preparation. Several models were created using different input and output combinations. The focus of comparisons was on the technical efficiency (II-III) and the labour efficiency (I, IV). An empirical cost model was tested to evaluate the cost efficiency (IV). Purchasing power parities (PPP, IV) were used to adjust the costs of the working hours and to make the costs comparable among countries. The total annual number of whole blood (WB) collections varied from 8,880 to 290,352 in the centres (I). Significant variation was also observed in the annual volume of produced red blood cells (RBCs) and PLTs. The annual number of PLTs produced by any method varied from 2,788 to 104,622 units. In 2002, 73% of all PLTs were produced by the buffy coat (BC) method, 23% by aphaeresis and 4% by the platelet-rich plasma (PRP) method. The annual discard rate of PLTs varied from 3.9% to 31%. The mean discard rate (13%) remained in the same range throughout the study period and demonstrated similar levels and variation in 2003-2004 according to a specific follow-up question (14%, range 3.8%-24%). The annual PLT discard rates were, to some extent, associated with production volumes. The mean RBC discard rate was 4.5% (range 0.2%-7.7%). Technical efficiency showed marked variation (median 60%, range 41%-100%) among the centres (II). Compared to the efficient departments, the inefficient departments used excess labour resources (and probably) production equipment to produce RBCs and PLTs. Technical efficiency tended to be higher when the (theoretical) proportion of lost WB collections (total RBC+PLT loss) from all collections was low (III). The labour efficiency varied remarkably, from 25% to 100% (median 47%) when working hours were the only input (IV). Using the estimated total costs as the input (cost efficiency) revealed an even greater variation (13%-100%) and overall lower efficiency level compared to labour only as the input. In cost efficiency only, the savings potential (observed inefficiency) was more than 50% in 10 departments, whereas labour and cost savings potentials were both more than 50% in six departments. The association between department size and efficiency (scale efficiency) could not be verified statistically in the small sample. In conclusion, international evaluation of the technical efficiency in component preparation departments revealed remarkable variation. A suboptimal combination of manpower and production output levels was the major cause of inefficiency, and the efficiency did not directly relate to production volume. Evaluation of the reasons for discarding components may offer a novel approach to study efficiency. DEA was proven applicable in analyses including various factors as inputs and outputs. This study suggests that analytical models can be developed to serve as indicators of technical efficiency and promote improvements in the management of limited resources. The work also demonstrates the importance of integrating efficiency analysis into international comparisons of blood banking.

Zinc, cadmium and lead resistance mechanisms in bacteria and their contribution to biosensing

In bacteria resistance to heavy metals is mainly achieved through active efflux, but also sequestration with proteins or as insoluble compounds is used. Although numerous studies have dealt with zinc, cadmium and lead resistance mechanisms in bacteria, it has still remained unclear how different transporters are integrated into an effective homeostasis/resistance network and whether specific mechanisms for lead sequestration exist. Furthermore, since metals are toxic not only to bacteria but to higher organisms as well, it is important to be able to estimate possible biological effects of heavy metals in the environment. This could be done by determining the bioavailable amount of the metals in the environment with bacterial bioreporters. That is, one can employ bacteria that respond to metal contamination by a measurable signal to assess the property of metals to cross biological membranes and to cause harmful effects in a possibly polluted environment. In this thesis a new lead resistance mechanism is described, interplay between CBA transporters and P-type ATPases in zinc and cadmium resistance is presented and finally the acquired knowledge is used to construct bacterial bioreporters for heavy metals with increased sensitivity and specificity. The new lead resistance model employs a P-type ATPase that removes Pb2+ ions from the cytoplasm and a phosphatase that produces inorganic phosphate for lead sequestration in the periplasm. This was the first study where the molecular mechanism of lead sequestration has been described. Characterization of two P-type ATPases and two CBA transporters showed that resistance mechanisms for Zn2+ and Cd2+ are somewhat different than for Pb2+ as these metals cannot be sequestered as insoluble compounds as easily. Resistance to Zn2+ was conferred merely by the CBA transporter that could export both cytoplasmic and periplasmic ions; whereas, full resistance to Cd2+ required interplay of a P-type ATPase that exported cytoplasmic ions to periplasm and a CBA transporter that further exported periplasmic ions to the outside. The knowledge on functionality of the transporters and metal-inducible promoters was exploited in bioreporter technology. A transporter-deficient bioreporter strain that lacked exporters for Zn2+/Cd2+/Pb2+ could detect up to 45-fold lower metal concentrations than its wild type counterpart due to the accumulation of metals in the cell. The broad specificity issue of bioreporters was overcome by using Zn-specific promoter as a sensor element, thus achieving Zn-specific bioreporter.