Programmed hypertension in rats treated with a NF-kappa B inhibitor during nephrogenesis: renal mechanisms

Suppression of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) during murine lactation causes progressive renal injury, indicating a physiological action of angiotensin II on nephrogenesis. The nuclear factor NF-kappa B system is one of the main intracellular mediators of angiotensin II. We investigated whether inhibition of this system with pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) during rat nephrogenesis would lead to similar hypertension and renal injury as observed with RAS suppressors. Immediately after delivery, 32 Munich-Wistar dams, each nursing 6 male pups, were divided into 2 groups: C, untreated, and PDTC, receiving PDTC, 280 mg kg(-1) day(-1) orally, during 21 days. After weaning, the offspring were followed until 10 months of age without treatment. Adult rats that received neonatal PDTC exhibited stable hypertension and myocardial injury, without albuminuria. To gain additional insight into this process, the renal expression of RAS components and sodium transporters were determined by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) at 3 and 10 months of life. Renal renin and angiotensinogen were upregulated at 3 and downregulated at 10 months of age, suggesting a role for early local RAS activation. Likewise, there was early upregulation of the proximal sodium/glucose and sodium/bicarbonate transporters, which abated later in life, suggesting that additional factors sustained hypertension in the long run. The conclusions drawn from the findings were as follows: (1) an intact NF-jB system during nephrogenesis may be essential to normal renal and cardiovascular function in adult life; (2) neonatal PDTC represents a new model of hypertension, lacking overt structural injury or functional impairment of the kidneys; and (3) hypertension in this model seems associated with early temporary activation of renal RAS and sodium transporters. Hypertension Research (2011) 34, 693-700; doi: 10.1038/hr. 2011.4; published online 17 February 2011

Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate down-regulates vascular matrix metalloproteinases and ameliorates vascular dysfunction and remodelling in renovascular hypertension

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Mounting evidence implicates matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) in the vascular dysfunction and remodelling associated with hypertension. We tested the hypothesis that treatment with pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC), which interferes with NF-kappa B-induced MMPs gene transcription, could exert antihypertensive effects, prevent MMP-2 and MMP-9 up-regulation, and protect against the functional alterations and vascular remodelling of two-kidney, one clip (2K1C) hypertension. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Sham-operated or hypertensive rats were treated with vehicle or PDTC (100 mg.Kg(-1).day(-1)) by gavage for 8 weeks. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was monitored weekly. Aortic rings were isolated to assess endothelium-dependent relaxations. Quantitative morphometry of structural alterations of the aortic wall was carried out in haematoxylin/eosin sections. Formation of vascular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and inducible (i) NOS and phosphorylated-p65 NF-kappa B subunit expression were measured in the aortas. MMP-2 and MMP-9 aortic levels and gelatinolytic activity were determined by gelatin and in situ zymography and by immunofluorescence. KEY RESULTS Treatment with PDTC attenuated the increases in SBP and prevented the endothelial dysfunction associated with 2K1C hypertension. Moreover, PDTC reversed the vascular aortic remodelling, the increases in aortic ROS levels and in iNOS and phosphorylated-p65 NF-kappa B expression found in 2K1C rats. These effects were associated with attenuation of 2K1C up-regulation of aortic MMP-2 and MMP-9 levels and gelatinolytic activity. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS These findings suggest that PDTC down-regulates vascular MMPs and ameliorates vascular dysfunction and remodelling in renovascular hypertension, thus providing evidence supporting the suggestion that PDTC is probably a good candidate to be used to treat hypertension.

Identificação de alterações moleculares envolvidas na progressão e desdiferenciação dos carcinomas da tiróide

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Genética Molecular e Biomedicina

Analytical and numerical study of the electro-osmotic annular flow of viscoelastic fluids

In this work we present semi-analytical solutions for the electro-osmotic annular flow of viscoelastic fluids modeled by the Linear and Exponential PTT models. The viscoelastic fluid flows in the axial direction between two concentric cylinders under the combined influences of electrokinetic and pressure forcings. The analysis invokes the Debye-Hückel approximation and includes the limit case of pure electro-osmotic flow. The solution is valid for both no slip and slip velocity at the walls and the chosen slip boundary condition is the linear Navier slip velocity model. The combined effects of fluid rheology, electro-osmotic and pressure gradient forcings on the fluid velocity distribution are also discussed.

Increased expression of p38 mitogen- activated protein kinase is related to the acute renal lesions induced by gentamicin

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) may be involved in the pathogenesis of acute renal failure. This study investigated the expression of p-p38 MAPK and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) in the renal cortex of rats treated with gentamicin. Twenty rats were injected with gentamicin, 40 mg/kg, im, twice a day for 9 days, 20 with gentamicin + pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC, an NF-kappaB inhibitor), 14 with 0.15 M NaCl, im, twice a day for 9 days, and 14 with 0.15 M NaCl , im, twice a day for 9 days and PDTC, 50 mg kg-1 day-1, ip, twice a day for 15 days. The animals were killed 5 and 30 days after the last of the injections and the kidneys were removed for histological, immunohistochemical and Western blot analysis and for nitrate determination. The results of the immunohistochemical study were evaluated by counting the p-p38 MAPK-positive cells per area of renal cortex measuring 0.05 mm². Creatinine was measured by the Jaffé method in blood samples collected 5 and 30 days after the end of the treatments. Gentamicin-treated rats presented a transitory increase in plasma creatinine levels. In addition, animals killed 5 days after the end of gentamicin treatment presented acute tubular necrosis and increased nitrate levels in the renal cortex. Increased expression of p-p38 MAPK and NF-kappaB was also observed in the kidneys from these animals. The animals killed 30 days after gentamicin treatment showed residual areas of interstitial fibrosis in the renal cortex, although the expression of p-p38 MAPK in their kidneys did not differ from control. Treatment with PDTC reduced the functional and structural changes induced by gentamicin as well as the expression of p-p38 MAPK and NF-kappaB. The increased expression of p-p38 MAPK and NF-kappaB observed in these rats suggests that these signaling molecules may be involved in the pathogenesis of tubulointerstitial nephritis induced by gentamicin.

REGγ is a strong candidate for the regulation of cell cycle, proliferation and the invasion by poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma cells

REGγ is a proteasome activator that facilitates the degradation of small peptides. Abnormally high expression of REGγ has been observed in thyroid carcinomas. The purpose of the present study was to explore the role of REGγ in poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma (PDTC). For this purpose, small interfering RNA (siRNA) was introduced to down-regulate the level of REGγ in the PDTC cell line SW579. Down-regulation of REGγ at the mRNA and protein levels was confirmed by RT-PCR and Western blot analyses. FACS analysis revealed cell cycle arrest at the G1/S transition, the MTT assay showed inhibition of cell proliferation, and the Transwell assay showed restricted cell invasion. Furthermore, the expression of the p21 protein was increased, the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) protein decreased, and the expression of the p27 protein was unchanged as shown by Western blot analyses. REGγ plays a critical role in the cell cycle, proliferation and invasion of SW579 cells. The alteration of p21 and PCNA proteins related to the down-regulation of REGγ suggests that p21 and PCNA participate in the process of REGγ regulation of cell cycle progression and cell proliferation. Thus, targeting REGγ has a therapeutic potential in the management of PDTC patients.

Le diabète maternel influence la morphogenèse rénale et la programmation périnatale

Le diabète maternel est un facteur de risque majeur pour le développement de malformations congénitales. Dans le syndrome de l’embryopathie diabétique, l’exposition prolongée du fœtus à de hautes concentrations ambientes de glucose induit des dommages qui peuvent affecter plusieurs organes, dont les reins. Les malformations rénales sont la cause de près de 40 pourcent des cas d’insuffisance rénale infantile. L’hyperglycémie constitue un environnement utérin adverse qui nuit à la néphrogenèse et peut causer l’agenèse, la dysplasie (aplasie) ou l’hypoplasie rénale. Les mécanismes moléculaires par lesquels les hautes concentrations ambientes de glucose mènent à la dysmorphogenèse et aux malformations demeurent toutefois mal définis. Le diabète maternel prédispose aussi la progéniture au développement d’autres problèmes à l’âge adulte, tels l’hypertension, l’obésité et le diabète de type 2. Ce phénomène appelé ‘programmation périnatale’ a suscité l’intérêt au cours des dernières décennies, mais les mécanismes responsables demeurent mal compris. Mes études doctorales visaient à élucider les mécanismes moléculaires par lesquels le diabète maternel ou un environnement in utero hyperglycémique affecte la néphrogenèse et programme par la suite la progéniture a développer de l’hypertension par des observations in vitro, ex vivo et in vivo. Nous avons utilisé les cellules MK4, des cellules embryonnaires du mésenchyme métanéphrique de souris, pour nos études in vitro et deux lignées de souris transgéniques (Tg) pour nos études ex vivo et in vivo, soient les souris HoxB7-GFP-Tg et Nephrin-CFP-Tg. Les souris HoxB7-GFP-Tg expriment la protéine fluorescente verte (GFP) dans le bourgeon urétérique (UB), sous le contrôle du promoteur HoxB7. Les souris Nephrin-CFP expriment la protéine fluorescente cyan (CFP) dans les glomérules, sous le contrôle du promoteur nephrin spécifique aux podocytes. Nos études in vitro visaient à déterminer si les hautes concentrations de glucose modulent l’expression du gène Pax2 dans les cellules MK4. Les cellules MK4 ont été traitées pendant 24h avec du milieu contenant soit 5mM D-glucose et 20mM D-mannitol ou 25mM D-glucose et avec ou sans antioxydants ou inhibiteurs de p38 MAPK, p44/42 MAPK, PKC et NF-kB. Nos résultats ont démontré que le D-glucose élevé (25mM) augmente la génération des espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ROS) dans les cellules MK4 et induit spécifiquement l’expression du gène Pax2. Des analogues du glucose tels le D-mannitol, L-glucose ou le 2-Deoxy-D-glucose n’induisent pas cette augmentation dans les cellules MK4. La stimulation de l’expression du gène Pax2 par le D-glucose dans les cellules MK4 peut être bloquée par des inhibiteurs des ROS et de NF-kB, mais pas par des inhibiteurs de p38 MAPK, p44/42 MAPK ou PKC. Ces résultats indiquent que la stimulation de l’expression du gène Pax2 par les concentrations élevées de glucose est due, au moins en partie, à la génération des ROS et l’activation de la voie de signalisation NF-kB, et non pas via les voies PKC, p38 MAPK et p44/42 MAPK. Nos études ex vivo s’intéressaient aux effets d’un milieu hyperglycémique sur la morphogenèse de la ramification du bourgeon urétérique (UB). Des explants de reins embryonnaires (E12 à E18) ont été prélevés par micro-dissection de femelles HoxB7-GFP gestantes. Les explants ont ensuite été cultivés dans un milieu contenant soit 5mM D-glucose et 20mM D-mannitol ou 25mM D-glucose et avec ou sans antioxydants, catalase ou inhibiteur de PI3K/AKT pour diverses durées. Nos résultats ont démontré que le D-glucose stimule la ramification du UB de manière spécifique, et ce via l’expression du gène Pax2. Cette augmentation de la ramification et de l’expression du gène Pax2 peut être bloquée par des inhibiteurs des ROS et de PI3K/AKT. Ces études ont démontré que les hautes concentrations de glucose altèrent la morphogenèse de la ramification du UB via l’expression de Pax2. L’effet stimulant du glucose semble s’effectuer via la génération des ROS et l’activation de la voie de signalisation Akt. Nos études in vivo visaient à déterminer le rôle fondamental du diabète maternel sur les défauts de morphogenèse rénale chez la progéniture. Dans notre modèle animal, le diabète maternel est induit par le streptozotocin (STZ) chez des femelles HoxB7-GFP gestantes (E13). Les souriceaux ont été étudiés à différents âges (naissants et âgés de une, deux ou trois semaines). Nous avons examiné leurs morphologie rénale, nombre de néphrons, expression génique et les événements apoptotiques lors de cette étude à court terme. La progéniture des mères diabétiques avait un plus faible poids, taille et poids des reins, et possédait des glomérules plus petits et moins de néphrons par rapport à la progéniture des mères contrôles. La dysmorphogenèse rénale observée est peut-être causée par l’augmentation de l’apoptose des cellules dans la région du glomérule. Nos résultats ont montré que les souriceaux nés de mères diabétiques possèdent plus de podocytes apoptotiques et plus de marquage contre la caspase-3 active dans leurs tubules rénaux que la progéniture des mères contrôles. Les souriceaux des mères diabétiques montrent une augmentation de l’expression des composants du système rénine angiotensine (RAS) intrarénal comme l’angiotensinogène et la rénine, ainsi qu’une augmentation des isoformes p50 et p65 de NF-kB. Ces résultats indiquent que le diabète maternel active le RAS intrarénal et induit l’apoptose des glomérules, menant à une altération de la morphogenèse rénale de la progéniture. En conclusion, nos études ont permis de démontrer que le glucose élevé ou l’environnement in utero diabétique altère la morphogenèse du UB, qui résulte en un retard dans la néphrogenèse et produit des reins plus petits. Cet effet est dû, au moins en partie, à la génération des ROS, à l’activation du RAS intrarénal et à la voie NF-kB. Nos études futures se concentreront sur les mécanismes par lesquels le diabète maternel induit la programmation périnatale de l’hypertension chez la progéniture adulte. Cette étude à long terme porte sur trois types de progénitures : adultes nés de mères contrôles, diabétiques ou diabétiques traitées avec insuline pendant la gestation. Nous observerons la pression systolique, la morphologie rénale et l’expression de divers gènes et protéines. Nous voulons de plus déterminer si la présence d’un système antioxydant (catalase) peut protéger la progéniture des effets néfastes des ROS causés par l’environnement in utero hyperglycémique. Les souris Catalase-Tg expriment la catalase spécifiquement dans les tubules proximaux et nous permettrons d’explorer notre hypothèse sur le rôle des ROS dans notre modèle expérimental de diabète maternel.

Regulation of excitotoxicity in thiamine deficiency : role of glutamate transporters.

L’excitotoxicité est un mécanisme physiopathologique majeur impliqué dans la pathogenèse de la déficience en thiamine (DT). Dans les régions cérébrales vulnérables à la DT, on observe une mort cellulaire induite par excitotoxicité dont l’origine semble être la conséquence d’une perturbation du métabolisme énergétique mitochondrial, d’une dépolarisation membranaire soutenue et d’une diminution de l’absorption du glutamate par les astrocytes suite à la diminution de l’expression des transporteurs EAAT1 et EAAT2. Il est clairement établi que le glutamate joue un rôle central dans l’excitotoxicité lors de la DT. Ainsi, la mise en évidence des mécanismes impliqués dans la diminution de l’expression des transporteurs du glutamate est essentielle à la compréhension de la physiopathologie de la DT. L’objectif de cette thèse consiste en l’étude de la régulation des transporteurs astrocytaires du glutamate et la mise au point de stratégies thérapeutiques ciblant la pathogenèse de l’excitotoxicité lors de l’encéphalopathie consécutive à la DT. Les principaux résultats de cette thèse démontrent des perturbations des transporteurs du glutamate à la fois dans des modèles animaux de DT et dans des astrocytes en culture soumis à une DT. La DT se caractérise par la perte du variant d’épissage GLT-1b codant pour un transporteur du glutamate dans le thalamus et le colliculus inférieur, les régions cérébrales affectées lors d’une DT, en l’absence de modification des niveaux d’ARNm. Ces résultats suggèrent une régulation post-transcriptionnelle de l’expression des transporteurs du glutamate en condition de DT. Les études basées sur l’utilisation d’inhibiteurs spécifiques des facteurs de transcription NFkB et de l’enzyme nucléaire poly(ADP)ribose polymérase-1 (PARP-1) démontrent que la régulation de l’expression du transporteur GLT-1 est sous le contrôle de voies de signalisation NFkB dépendantes de PARP-1. Cette étude démontre une augmentation de l’activation de PARP-1 et de NFkB dans les régions vulnérables chez le rat soumis à une DT et en culture d’astrocytes DT. L’inhibition pharmacologique du facteur de transcription NFkB par le PDTC induit une augmentation des niveaux d’expression de GLT-1, tandis que l’inhibition de PARP-1 par le DPQ conduit à l’inhibition de l’hyperactivation de NFkB observée lors de DT. L’ensemble de ces résultats met en évidence un nouveau mécanisme de régulation des transporteurs du glutamate par l’activation de PARP-1. L’accumulation de lactate est une caractéristique de la DT. Un traitement avec le milieu de culture d’astrocytes en condition de DT sur des cultures d’astrocytes naïfs induit une diminution de l’expression de GLT-1 ainsi qu’une inhibition de la capacité d’absorption du glutamate par les astrocytes naïfs. En revanche, l’administration de lactate exogène ne modifie pas le niveau d’expression protéique de GLT-1. Ainsi, des facteurs solubles autres que le lactate sont sécrétés par des astrocytes en condition de perturbation métabolique et peuvent potentiellement réguler l’activité des transporteurs du glutamate et contribuer à la pathogenèse du syncytium astroglial. En outre, la ceftriaxone, un antibiotique de la famille des β-lactamines, augmente de façon différentielle l’expression du variant-d’épissage GLT-1 dans le colliculus inférieur chez le rat DT et en culture d’astrocytes DT. Ces résultats suggèrent que la ceftriaxone peut constituer une avenue thérapeutique dans la régulation de l’activité des transporteurs du glutamate lors de DT. Pour conclure, la mort cellulaire d’origine excitotoxique lors de DT survient en conséquence d’une dysfonction mitochondriale associée à une perturbation du métabolisme énergétique cérébral. La modification de l’expression des transporteurs du gluatamate est sous le contrôle des voies de signalisation NFkB dépendantes du facteur PARP-1. De plus, l’inhibition métabolique et l’augmentation des sécrétions de lactate observées lors de DT peuvent également constituer un autre mécanisme physiopathologique expliquant la diminution d’expression des transporteurs de glutamate. Enfin, la ceftriaxone pourrait représenter une stratégie thérapeutique potentielle dans le traitement de la régulation de l’expression des transporteurs du glutamate et de la perte neuronale associés à l’excitotoxicité observée lors de DT.

Nuclear Factor-kappaB controls the reaggregation of 3D neurosphere cultures in vitro

The approach of reaggregation involves the regeneration and self-renewal of histotypical 3D spheres from isolated tissue kept in suspension culture. Reaggregated spheres can be used as tumour, genetic, biohybrid and neurosphere models. In addition the functional superiority of 3D aggregates over conventional 2D cultures developed the use of neurospheres for brain engineering of CNS diseases. Thus 3D aggregate cultures created enormous interest in mechanisms that regulate the formation of multicellular aggregates in vitro. Here we analyzed mechanisms guiding the development of 3D neurosphere cultures. Adult neural stem cells can be cultured as self-adherent clusters, called neurospheres. Neurospheres are characterised as heterogeneous clusters containing unequal stem cell sub-types. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha is one of the crucial inflammatory cytokines with multiple actions on several cell types. TNF-alpha strongly activates the canonical Nuclear Factor Kappa-B (NF- kappaB) pathway. In order to investigate further functions of TNF in neural stem cells (NSCs) we tested the hypothesis that TNF is able to modulate the motility and/or migratory behaviour of SVZ derived adult neural stem cells. We observed a significantly faster sphere formation in TNF treated cultures than in untreated controls. The very fast aggregation of isolated NSCs (<2h) is a commonly observed phenomenon, though the mechanisms of 3D neurosphere formation remain largely unclear. Here we demonstrate for the first time, increased aggregation and enhanced motility of isolated NSCs in response to the TNF-stimulus. Moreover, this phenomenon is largely dependent on activated transcription factor NF-kappaB. Both, the pharmacological blockade of NF-kappaB pathway by pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) or Bay11-7082 and genetic blockade by expression of a transdominant-negative super-repressor IkappaB-AA1 led to decreased aggregation.

Cocaine induces cell death and activates the transcription nuclear factor kappa-b in pc12 cells

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Cocaine induces cell death and activates the transcription nuclear factor kappa-b in pc12 cells

Cocaine is a worldwide used drug and its abuse is associated with physical, psychiatric and social problems. The mechanism by which cocaine causes neurological damage is very complex and involves several neurotransmitter systems. For example, cocaine increases extracellular levels of dopamine and free radicals, and modulates several transcription factors. NF-κB is a transcription factor that regulates gene expression involved in cellular death. Our aim was to investigate the toxicity and modulation of NF-κB activity by cocaine in PC 12 cells. Treatment with cocaine (1 mM) for 24 hours induced DNA fragmentation, cellular membrane rupture and reduction of mitochondrial activity. A decrease in Bcl-2 protein and mRNA levels, and an increase in caspase 3 activity and cleavage were also observed. In addition, cocaine (after 6 hours treatment) activated the p50/p65 subunit of NF-κB complex and the pretreatment of the cells with SCH 23390, a D1 receptor antagonist, attenuated the NF-κB activation. Inhibition of NF-κB activity by using PDTC and Sodium Salicilate increased cell death caused by cocaine. These results suggest that cocaine induces cell death (apoptosis and necrosis) and activates NF-κB in PC12 cells. This activation occurs, at least partially, due to activation of D1 receptors and seems to have an anti-apoptotic effect on these cells.

NF-κB activation mediates crystal translocation and interstitial inflammation in adenine overload nephropathy

Adenine overload promotes intratubular crystal precipitation and interstitial nephritis. We showed recently that these abnormalities are strongly attenuated in mice knockout for Toll-like receptors-2, -4, MyD88, ASC, or caspase-1. We now investigated whether NF-κB activation also plays a pathogenic role in this model. Adult male Munich-Wistar rats were distributed among three groups: C (n = 17), receiving standard chow; ADE (n = 17), given adenine in the chow at 0.7% for 1 wk and 0.5% for 2 wk; and ADE + pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC; n = 14), receiving adenine as above and the NF-κB inhibitor PDTC (120 mg•kg-1•day-1 in the drinking water). After 3 wk, widespread crystal deposition was seen in tubular lumina and in the renal interstitium, along with granuloma formation, collagen accumulation, intense tubulointerstitial proliferation, and increased interstitial expression of inflammatory mediators. Part of the crystals were segregated from tubular lumina by a newly formed cell layer and, at more advanced stages, appeared to be extruded to the interstitium. p65 nuclear translocation and IKK-α increased abundance indicated activation of the NF-κB system. PDTC treatment prevented p65 migration and normalized IKK-α, limited crystal shift to the interstitium, and strongly attenuated interstitial fibrosis/inflammation. These findings indicate that the complex inflammatory phenomena associated with this model depend, at least in part, on NF-κB activation, and suggest that the NF-κB system may become a therapeutic target in the treatment of chronic kidney disease.

Poorly differentiated oncocytic thyroid carcinoma--diagnostic implications and outcome

Poorly differentiated thyroid carcinomas (PDTC) are an ongoing diagnostic challenge. Although the Turin consensus criteria for PDTC excluded consideration of oncocytic tumours, the World Health Organization (WHO) classification does recognise an oncocytic variant of conventional PDTC. The aims of this study were to establish whether the Turin criteria can be applied to oncocytic PDTC, and to determine if there are prognostic differences between conventional and oncocytic PDTC.

The inhibition of NF-kappaB activation pathways and the induction of apoptosis by dithiocarbamates in T cells are blocked by the glutathione precursor N-acetyl-L-cysteine

Nuclear factor-kappaB regulates genes that control immune and inflammatory responses and are involved in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including AIDS and cancer. It has been proposed that reactive oxygen intermediates participate in NF-kappaB activation pathways, and compounds with putative antioxidant activity such as N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) and pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) have been used interchangeably to demonstrate this point. We examined their effects, separately and combined, on different stages of the NF-kappaB activation pathway, in primary and in transformed T cells. We show that NAC, contrary to its reported role as an NF-kappaB inhibitor, can actually enhance rather than inhibit IkappaB degradation and, most importantly, show that in all cases NAC exerts a dominant antagonistic effect on PDTC-mediated NF-kappaB inhibition. This was observed at the level of IkappaB degradation, NF-kappaB DNA binding, and HIV-LTR-driven reporter gene expression. NAC also counteracted growth arrest and apoptosis induced by dithiocarbamates. Antagonistic effects were further observed at the level of jun-NH2-terminal kinase, p38 and ATF-2 activation. Our findings argue against the widely accepted assumption that NAC inhibits all NF-kappaB activation pathways and shows that two compounds, previously thought to function through a common inhibitory mechanism, can also have antagonistic effects.

Colour morphotypes of Elysia timida (Sacoglossa, Gastropoda) are determined by light acclimation in food algae

Elysia timida (Risso, 1818) colonizing the shallow waters of the Mar Menor Lagoon (Spain) exhibit a brown and a green morph. It was hypothesised that these morphs were the result of feeding preferentially on brown and green algae, respectively. E. timida and its potential food sources, Acetabularia acetabulum (Chlorophyta) and Halopteris filicina (Heterokontophyta) were collected by snorkelling during April 2010. Photosynthetic pigments were analysed by HPLC, photo-physiological parameters were estimated by PAM fluorometry and body colour was characterized by spectral reflectance. Digital photography was used to count the number and area of red spots (small red dots on the slug’s surface) on the parapodia of the 2 morphs. In the laboratory, green E. timida was fed with A. acetabulum cultured under 2 light treatments (high light, 600 µmol E m−2 s−1 and low light, 40 µmol E m−2 s−1), and digital photography was used to monitor colour alterations in E. timida. Spectral reflectance confirmed the colour differences, but both morphs showed a pigment composition similar to the green alga A. acetabulum and showed none of the pigments present in the brown alga H. filicina, neither immediately after collection of the slugs in situ, nor after the feeding experiment. A. acetabulum grown under high light intensity changed from green to brown colour and E. timida changed to brown colour when fed with high-light acclimated A. acetabulum. Thus, E. timida colour differences could not be attributed to feeding on different algae groups but was likely the result of feeding on A. acetabulum growing under different light intensities.