连续PCR扩增过程中异常现象的发生机理研究

聚合酶链式反应（Polymerase Chain Reaction，PCR）技术从其发明以来，因为其操作的简单方便和高效率而在生物学研究的各个领域得到了广泛的应用，包括序列扩增、序列的人工突变、疾病诊断、法医学鉴定、基因的表达分析等等。从PCR技术发明以来，如何提高反应的特异性和反应的效率一直是人们所共同关心的题目，为此也发展了相当数量的各种方法，如热启动PCR、降落PCR、巢式PCR以及在反应体系中添加一些有益的附属物等。而适合不同目的的PCR技术也得到了充分的发展，如多重PCR、反转录PCR、定量PCR、原位PCR、PCR突变、毛细管PCR技术等等。并且，包括随机引物扩增多态、扩增片段长度多态性、简单重复序列多态性、单核苷酸多态性等这些在PCR技术基础上发展而来的各种分子标记技术极大地方便了遗传分析和遗传图谱的构建等工作。在PCR技术发明了20年后的今天，提高PCR的反应性能、发展适合新领域的PCR技术和新的分子标记技术仍然是研究者关心的题目和努力的方向。 　　PCR实验中已经观察到多种异常现象，除了常见的扩增失败（没有产物）、扩增产物特异性不强（有非特异产物出现）、引物多聚体产物扩增、扩增效率低等现象以外，还包括PCR介导的重组、跳跃、复制滑动等等。阐明这些异常现象的发生机理和过程，避免或缓解这些异常现象在扩增过程中对目的产物扩增的影响，以及促进和利用一些特殊的异常PCR扩增都是PCR技术研究所关心的话题。各种研究工作中经常需要扩增一些长片段的序列，但是在进行长片段PCR时经常会发现扩增目标序列的长度是有限的、扩增效率比较低、扩增产物检测中有很强的背景弥散等现象;同时长片段PCR需要一些特殊的反应体系组成和反应条件。如何更加有效地实现更长序列的PCR扩增也是人们所关心的话题之一。 　　常见的PCR产物重复扩增（以上一轮扩增产物为模板进行新的PCR扩增）扩增轮数少，通常仅进行一次重复扩增;同时，在重复扩增中常使用的策略是使用巢式引物。而连续PCR扩增实验（用相同的引物以产物为模板进行多轮次的连续重复PCR扩增）从未见于文献报道。我们第一次系统地进行了连续PCR扩增实验;同时，在实验过程中我们观察到了一种新的PCR扩增异常现象——用不同来源的模板（病毒、细菌质粒或真核生物来源的DNA序列）进行连续PCR扩增不同长度的靶序列，经过有限次数的重复扩增后，最终都会导致扩增失败;这种扩增失败都表现为在常规琼脂糖电泳检测时特异产物条带的消失和不能泳动出点样孔之复杂异常产物的出现;这种扩增产生的异常产物能够被稳定地重复扩增。用λ和细菌质粒序列为模板连续扩增不同长度靶序列的结果表明：连续PCR扩增失败的时期具有扩增靶序列长度的依赖性，越长的靶序列在连续PCR中扩增失败的时期越早。 　　对不同连续PCR扩增的扩增过程观察表明扩增产物经历了一个从高效特异性扩增到低效率特异性扩增，再到扩增产生复杂异常产物的过程。对复杂异常产物的甲酰胺辅助变性处理和变性胶电泳（尿素变性聚丙烯酰胺胶电泳和NaOH碱变性琼脂糖电泳）检测表明扩增产生的复杂产物主要由连续分布的小于靶序列长度的具有相当程度多样性的非全长链组成。连续PCR产生的复杂产物在内部具有局部的双链区域和大量的单链区域及外部单链分支，能够被单链特异的S1核酸酶消化，但是不能被双链特异的限制性内切酶消化。用DNase I或限制性内切酶处理连续扩增早期产生特异扩增产物形成不同长度序列组成的混合物，或者直接用不同扩增反应产生的不同长度的核酸序列组成混合物，混合物在经历变性-复性后都表现出类似连续PCR失败所产生的异常产物电泳行为。这些证据都表明PCR扩增过程中形成的非全长链成分是导致这种异常现象的关键因素，多个不同长度的非全长链复性形成“杂种分子”（具有较大且不一致的分子量和复杂的分支结构），最终表现为常规琼脂糖电泳异常的复杂产物。同时，异常产物组成非全长链成分和全长链成分是其能够实现稳定重复扩增的基础。 　　实验结果表明：对于特定长度的靶序列而言，导致复杂异常出现的根本原因是连续PCR扩增体系中所经历的总PCR热循环数目（每一轮PCR扩增所使用的循环数目多，成功连续扩增的轮数就少）;而扩增体系中的引物浓度、DNA聚合酶用量的多少、扩增程序中时间参数等对此影响较小;巢式PCR和单引物-互补引物PCR的结果表明这些处理对于缓解或延迟异常产物的出现有一定的作用。人工处理（DNase I或限制性内切酶处理）完整模板双链形成的非全长链长产物，然后把非全长链长产物以不同比例同完整模板混合模拟连续扩增后期产物，这种人工混合模板表明连续PCR扩增中同源的非全长链成分对PCR扩增有严重的干扰作用，是导致复杂异常产物出现的直接原因。 　　已有的研究表明：PCR介导重组、长片段PCR难于操作有共同的产生基础——扩增过程中非全长链成分的产生和非全长链成分对后续扩增过程的干扰作用。这一点和导致连续PCR失败的原因是一致的。非全长链成分的出现是PCR扩增过程中不可避免的，其最初产生的可能来源有三个：模板的损伤（扩增前的模板损伤或扩增热循环过程中的损伤）、聚合酶的忠实性、以及聚合酶的进行性。根据聚合酶的特性而调整扩增程序中延伸时间的实验表明，聚合酶的进行性不是导致连续PCR扩增失败的最主要原因。这种非全长链成分产物从无到有且不依赖于体系中非全长链成分的过程我们称之为非全长链成分的初级合成;而已经存在的非全长链成分干扰后续合成形成非全长链成分的过程我们称之为非全长链成分的次级合成。非全长链成分的初级合成和次级合成共同导致了连续扩增的失败和异常产物的形成。 　　从已有的研究结果看，任何降低PCR扩增过程中非全长链成分产生的措施，特别是聚合酶忠实性的提高，都能缓解异常扩增产物的出现和利于长片段PCR操作。 　　

Repetitive element-mediated recombination as a mechanism for new gene origination in Drosophila

Previous studies of repetitive elements (REs) have implicated a mechanistic role in generating new chimerical genes. Such examples are consistent with the classic model for exon shuffling, which relies on non-homologous recombination. However, recent data

Site-directed gene integration in transgenic zebrafish mediated by cre recombinase using a combination of mutant Lox sites

With current gene-transfer techniques in fish, insertion of DNA into the genome occurs randomly and in many instances at multiple sites. Associated position effects, copy number differences, and multiple gene interactions make gene expression experiments difficult to interpret and fish phenotype less predictable. To meet different fish engineering needs, we describe here a gene targeting model in zebrafish. At first, four target zebrafish lines, each harboring a single genomic lox71 target site, were generated by zebrafish transgenesis. The zygotes of transgenic zebrafish lines were coinjected with capped Cre mRNA and a knockin vector pZklox66RFP. Site-specific integration event happened from one target zebrafish line. In this line two integrant zebrafish were obtained from more than 80,000 targeted embryos (integrating efficiency about 10(-4) to 10(-5)) and confirmed to have a sole copy of the integrating DNA at the target genome site. Genomic polymerase chain reaction analysis and DNA sequencing verified the correct gene target events where lox71 and lox66 have accurately recombined into double mutant lox72 and wild-type loxP. Each integrant zebrafish chosen for analysis harbored the transgene rfp at the designated egfp concatenates. Although the Cre-mediated recombination is site specific, it is dependent on a randomly placed target site. That is, a genomic target cannot be preselected for integration based solely on its sequence. Conclusively, an rfp reporter gene was successfully inserted into the egfp target locus of zebrafish genome by Cre-lox-mediated recombination. This site-directed knockin system using the lox71/lox66 combination should be a promising gene-targeting platform serving various purposes in fish genetic engineering.

Detection of hepatotoxic Microcystis strains by PCR with intact cells from both culture and environmental samples

Microcystins are small hepatotoxic peptides produced by a number of cyanobacteria. They are synthesized non-ribosomally by multifunctional enzyme complex synthetases encoded by the mcy genes. Primers deduced from mcy genes were designed to discriminate between toxic microcystin-producing strains and non-toxic strains. Thus, PCR-mediated detection of mcy genes could be a simple and efficient means to identify potentially harmful genotypes among cyanobacterial populations in bodies of water. We surveyed the distribution of the mcyB gene in different Microcystis strains isolated from Chinese bodies of water and confirmed that PCR can be reliably used to identify toxic strains. By omitting any DNA purification steps, the modified PCR protocol can greatly simplify the process. Cyanobacterial cells enriched from cultures, field samples, or even sediment samples could be used in the PCR assay. This method proved sensitive enough to detect mcyB genes in samples with less than 2,000 Microcystis cells per ml. Its accuracy, specificity and applicability were confirmed by sequencing selected DNA amplicons, as well as by HPLC, ELISA and mouse bioassay as controls for toxin production of every strain used.

ENaC-mediated alveolar fluid clearance and lung fluid balance depend on the channel-activating protease 1.

Sodium transport via epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) expressed in alveolar epithelial cells (AEC) provides the driving force for removal of fluid from the alveolar space. The membrane-bound channel-activating protease 1 (CAP1/Prss8) activates ENaC in vitro in various expression systems. To study the role of CAP1/Prss8 in alveolar sodium transport and lung fluid balance in vivo, we generated mice lacking CAP1/Prss8 in the alveolar epithelium using conditional Cre-loxP-mediated recombination. Deficiency of CAP1/Prss8 in AEC induced in vitro a 40% decrease in ENaC-mediated sodium currents. Sodium-driven alveolar fluid clearance (AFC) was reduced in CAP1/Prss8-deficient mice, due to a 48% decrease in amiloride-sensitive clearance, and was less sensitive to beta(2)-agonist treatment. Intra-alveolar treatment with neutrophil elastase, a soluble serine protease activating ENaC at the cell surface, fully restored basal AFC and the stimulation by beta(2)-agonists. Finally, acute volume-overload increased alveolar lining fluid volume in CAP1/Prss8-deficient mice. This study reveals that CAP1 plays a crucial role in the regulation of ENaC-mediated alveolar sodium and water transport and in mouse lung fluid balance.

Targeting neuronal populations by AAV-mediated gene transfer for studying the endocannabinoid system

The cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor is involved in a plethora of physiological functions and heterogeneously expressed on different neuronal populations. Several conditional loss-of-function studies revealed distinct effects of CB1 receptor signaling on glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons, respectively. To gain a comprehensive picture of CB1 receptor-mediated effects, the present study aimed at developing a gain-of-function approach, which complements conditional loss-of-function studies. Therefore, adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated gene delivery and Cre-mediated recombination were combined to recreate an innovative method, which ensures region- and cell type-specific transgene expression in the brain. This method was used to overexpress the CB1 receptor in glutamatergic pyramidal neurons of the mouse hippocampus. Enhanced CB1 receptor activity at glutamatergic terminals caused impairment in hippocampus-dependent memory performance. On the other hand, elevated CB1 receptor levels provoked an increased protection against kainic acid-induced seizures and against excitotoxic neuronal cell death. This finding indicates the protective role of CB1 receptor on hippocampal glutamatergic terminals as a molecular stout guard in controlling excessive neuronal network activity. Hence, CB1 receptor on glutamatergic hippocampal neurons may represent a target for novel agents to restrain excitotoxic events and to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Endocannabinoid synthesizing and degrading enzymes tightly regulate endocannabinoid signaling, and thus, represent a promising therapeutic target. To further elucidate the precise function of the 2-AG degrading enzyme monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), MAGL was overexpressed specifically in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. This genetic modification resulted in highly increased MAGL activity accompanied by a 50 % decrease in 2-AG levels without affecting the content of arachidonic acid and anandamide. Elevated MAGL protein levels at glutamatergic terminals eliminated depolarization-induced suppression of excitation (DSE), while depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI) was unchanged. This result indicates that the on-demand availability of the endocannabinoid 2-AG is crucial for short-term plasticity at glutamatergic synapses in the hippocampus. Mice overexpressing MAGL exhibited elevated corticosterone levels under basal conditions and an increase in anxiety-like behavior, but surprisingly, showed no changes in aversive memory formation and in seizure susceptibility. This finding suggests that 2 AG-mediated hippocampal DSE is essential for adapting to aversive situations, but is not required to form aversive memory and to protect against kainic acid-induced seizures. Thus, specific inhibition of MAGL expressed in hippocampal pyramidal neurons may represent a potential treatment strategy for anxiety and stress disorders. Finally, the method of AAV-mediated cell type-specific transgene expression was advanced to allow drug-inducible and reversible transgene expression. Therefore, elements of the tetracycline-controlled gene expression system were incorporated in our “conditional” AAV vector. This approach showed that transgene expression is switched on after drug application and that background activity in the uninduced state was only detectable in scattered cells of the hippocampus. Thus, this AAV vector will proof useful for future research applications and gene therapy approaches.

腺苷蛋氨酸合成酶基因的克隆、改组与表达

S-Adenosyl-L-methionhie（SAM）是一种广泛存在于各种组织和细胞中的生物小分子，它在生物体内转甲基、转硫基和转氨丙基过程中起重要作用。SAM被广泛应用于治疗肝损伤、胆汁郁积和抑郁症等疾病。为改变当前酿酒酵母发酵胞内SAM积累量低的现状，本文以提高SAM胞内积累量为目的，综合应用现代基因工程技术，开展了SAM合成酶基因的克隆、改组与表达研究。在本试验中，我们通过PCR方法扩增得到三个SAM合成酶基因soml、samZ和metK，然后分别插入psE380载体并转化E．coliBL21。通过IPTG诱导可以获得各基因的蛋白质表达。三个目的基因被分别克隆进pYEsZ并转化酿酒酵母INVScl菌株，诱导表达后，工程菌株蛋白质表达量和胞内SAM积累量都有不同程度的提高。本论文建立了一种新的基因改组方法，可以将StEP和error-pronePCR有机的结合在一起，并成功的运用该方法对soml进行基因改组。经过一轮反应过程，蛋白质表达量和胞内SAM积累量均明显增加。对改组DNA序列分析表明，该基因具有8个点突变，导致4个氨基酸变异：I20L，G120S，I213L和A354S。为了进一步促进蛋白质表达，本文采用了一步长距离反向PCR方法，调整了起始密码子ATG和核糖体识别位点之间的间距，从而大幅度提高了蛋白质表达量和胞内SAM积累量。本论文建立了一种新的基因改组方法：分组一混合法，运用该方法可以将三种独立的基因改组过程整合进一个反应体系中。这一机制尤其适用于低同源性基因间的改组。采用本机制，仅需要一轮反应就实现了对samZ和metK的改组。通过对改组基因库的筛选，我们获得了一株SAM胞内积累量提高56.3％的酿酒酵母工程菌株。本论文建立起了一种改进的重叠PCR方法（MOE-PCR），该方法可以快速、高效的实现单个基因的多点定位突变。应用这一方法，仅需要一轮反应，就成功的实现了对soml基因8个稀有密码子的改造。

Epidemiologia da infecção genital pelo Papilomavírus humano (HPV) em população feminina geral e população carcerária

A infecção genital pelo Papilomavírus humano (HPV) é considerada uma das doenças sexualmente transmissíveis (DSTs) mais comum, representando um importante problema na Saúde Pública, além de estar diretamente relacionado à promoção do câncer de colo uterino. Este estudo teve o intuito de investigar os aspectos epidemiológicos da infecção genital pelo HPV em dois grupos distintos: mulheres de população geral e mulheres encarceradas. Para tanto foi conduzido um estudo transversal analítico com 423 mulheres a partir dos 18 anos que se submeteram ao exame preventivo do câncer do colo uterino, sendo 233 mulheres da população geral oriundas de uma unidade básica de saúde da cidade de Belém do Pará e 190 provenientes do Centro de Reeducação Feminino em Ananindeua no mesmo Estado, no período de janeiro de 2008 a março de 2010. Amostras da cérvice uterina foram coletadas para a realização da colpocitologia convencional e para a detecção do DNA do HPV através da reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) mediada pelos oligonucleotídeos iniciadores universais MY9/11. Todas as mulheres responderam a um formulário clínico e epidemiológico. Entre as 423 mulheres analisadas, a prevalência geral de infecção genital pelo HPV foi de 13,0% com variação entre 15,0% para a amostra geral e 10,5% para a carcerária. A faixa etária mais acometida foi a de 13 a 25 anos (19%) na amostra geral; e em mulheres com 45 anos ou mais (21,1%), nas carcerárias. Anormalidades Colpocitológicas, situação conjugal, número de parceiros sexuais novos, o uso de anticoncepcionais orais, história de DST e de sintomas genitais, além de tabagismo atual, foram fatores que se mostraram associados à infecção genital pelo HPV de maneira diferenciada entre amostras da população geral e carcerária.

Translocation capture sequencing: A method for high throughput mapping of chromosomal rearrangements

Chromosomal translocations require formation and joining of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs). These events disrupt the integrity of the genome and are involved in producing leukemias, lymphomas and sarcomas. Translocations are frequent, clonal and recurrent in mature B cell lymphomas, which bear a particularly high DNA damage burden by virtue of activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) expression. Despite the ubiquity of genomic rearrangements, the forces that underlie their genesis are not well understood. Here, we provide a detailed description of a new method for studying these events, translocation capture sequencing (TC-Seq). TC-Seq provides the means to document chromosomal rearrangements genome-wide in primary cells, and to discover recombination hotspots. Demonstrating its effectiveness, we successfully estimate the frequency of c-myc/IgH translocations in primary B cells, and identify hotspots of AID-mediated recombination. Furthermore. TC-Seq can be adapted to generate genome-wide rearrangement maps in any cell type and under any condition. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Molecular phylogeny and phenotypic variability of clinical and environmental strains of Aspergillus flavus

Aspergillus flavus is the second most common cause of aspergillosis infection in immunocompromised patients and is responsible for the production of aflatoxins. Little is known about the population structure of A. flavus, although recent molecular and phenotypic data seem to demonstrate that different genetic lineages exist within this species. The aim of this study was to carry out a morphological, physiological, and molecular analysis of a set of clinical and environmental isolates to determine whether this variability is due to species divergence or intraspecific diversity, and to assess whether the clinical isolates form a separate group. The amdS and omtA genes were more phylogenetically informative than the other tested genes and their combined analysis inferred three main clades, with no clear distinction between clinical and environmental isolates. No important morphological and physiological differences were found between the members of the different clades, with the exception of the assimilation of D-glucosamine, which differentiates the members of the clade II from the others. (C) 2012 The British Mycological Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Differenzielle Expression von Tubulin-Genen bei der Entwicklung von Blattzellen der Gerste (Hordeum vulgare L.)

Die Morphogenese einer Pflanzenzelle wird in großem Maße durch die Dynamik kortikaler Mikrotubuli (MT) bestimmt, die auf die Zellwandsynthese Einfluß nehmen. In dieser Arbeit wurden die Transkriptmengen der alpha-Tubulin-Isotypen und des gamma-Tubulin während der Entwicklung des Gerstenblattes analysiert, um Zusammenhänge zu bereits beschriebenen Umwandlungen im kortikalen MT-Cytoskelett der Mesophyllzellen aufzudecken. Erstmals konnte bei einer höheren Pflanze die Genexpression auf RNA-Ebene innerhalb einer Tubulin-Multigenfamilie im Verlauf der Blattentwicklung umfassend dargestellt werden.Es wurden blattspezifische cDNA-Bibliotheken erstellt und mittels RT-PCR homologe DNA-Gensonden für die Screeningprozesse der cDNA-Bibliotheken hergestellt. cDNA-Sequenzen von alpha-, beta-, und gamma-Tubulin konnten isoliert werden. Weitere, weniger abundante alpha-Tubulin-Sequenzen wurden während zusätzlicher Screeningrunden über PCR-Ausschluß häufig vertretener, bereits bekannter Isotypen isoliert.Die cDNA-Sequenzen von insgesamt fünf verschiedenen Isotypen des alpha-Tubulin konnten aufgeklärt werden, drei Isotypen wiesen bis zu fünf im nicht kodierenden 3´-Bereich verkürzte Varianten auf, die aber in ihrer Anzahl deutlich unterrepräsentiert waren. Die abgeleiteten Aminosäuresequenzen umfassten bei drei Isotypen 451 Aminosäuren (AS), zwei Isotypen waren im C-Terminus um eine bzw. um zwei AS kürzer. Die fünf alpha-Tubulin-Isotypen wiesen charakteristische Expressionsmuster auf, die in drei Klassen unterteilbar waren. Die Isotypen HVATUB1 und HVATUB5 (MT-Band-Isotypen) hatten den maximalen Gehalt in Blattbereichen, in denen auch hauptsächlich Mesophyllzellen mit kortikalen MT-Bänderungen vorkommen, wobei HVATUB5 den am schwächsten exprimierte Isotyp darstellte. HVATUB3 (Random-MT-Isotyp) zeigte die stärksten Expressionsraten. Die im Meristem und meristemnahen Bereichen bereits recht hohe Abundanz erreichte erst nach der Zellstreckungszone in einer Blattzone das Maximum, in dem hauptsächlich Mesophyllzellen mit zerstreut angeordneten MT anzutreffen sind. Die Isotypen HVATUB2 und HVATUB4 (MImax-Isotypen) waren in mitotisch aktiven, basalen Blattbereichen dominant.Die cDNA-Sequenz vom gamma-Tubulin der Gerste, HVGTUB, wurde ermittelt; die abgeleitete Aminosäuresequenz bestand aus 469 AS. Das Auftreten einer im nicht kodierenden 3´-Bereich kürzeren Variante konnte erstmals bei pflanzlichem gamma-Tubulin beschrieben werden. Southernblot-Analysen ließen darauf schließen, daß gamma-Tubulin nur als Einzelkopie im Genom der Gerste vorkommt. gamma-Tubulin wurde im mitosereichen Meristem der Blattbasis am stärksten exprimiert. Da die Abnahme der Transkriptmenge weitaus langsamer verlief als die Abnahme der Zellteilungsaktivität, ist anzunehmen, daß gamma-Tubulin neben der Erfüllung von mitose- und zellteilungsspezifischen Funktionen auch eine Rolle im Zusammenhang mit der Dynamik des kortikalen MT-Cytoskeletts spielt. Einen ersten Schritt zur Aufklärung der Genfamilie des beta-Tubulin bei Gerste stellt die Isolierung drei verschiedener cDNA-Sequenzen von beta-Tubulin dar.

Specific requirement for CD3ɛ in T cell development

T cell antigen receptor (TCR) and pre-TCR complexes are composed of clonotypic heterodimers in association with dimers of signal transducing invariant subunits (CD3γ, -δ, -ɛ, and ζ). The role of individual invariant subunits in T cell development has been investigated by generating gene-specific mutations in mice. Mutation of CD3γ, -δ, or ζ results in an incomplete block in development, characterized by reduced numbers of mature T cells that express low levels of TCR. In contrast, mature T cells are absent from CD3ɛ−/− mice, and thymocyte development is arrested at the early CD4−CD8− stage. Although these results suggest that CD3ɛ is essential for pre-TCR and TCR expression/function, their interpretation is complicated by the fact that expression of the CD3γ and CD3δ genes also is reduced in CD3ɛ−/− mice. Thus, it is unclear whether the phenotype of CD3ɛ−/− mice reflects the collective effects of CD3γ, -δ, and -ɛ deficiency. By removing the selectable marker (PGK-NEO) from the targeted CD3ɛ gene via Cre/loxP-mediated recombination, we generated mice that lack CD3ɛ yet retain normal expression of the closely linked CD3γ and CD3δ genes. These (CD3ɛΔ/Δ) mice exhibited an early arrest in T cell development, similar to that of CD3ɛ−/− mice. Moreover, the developmental defect could be rescued by expression of a CD3ɛ transgene. These results identify an essential role for CD3ɛ in T cell development not shared by the CD3γ, CD3δ, or ζ-family proteins and provide further evidence that PGK-NEO can influence the expression of genes in its proximity.

Spatio-temporally controlled site-specific somatic mutagenesis in the mouse

The efficient introduction of somatic mutations in a given gene, at a given time, in a specific cell type will facilitate studies of gene function and the generation of animal models for human diseases. We have shown previously that conditional recombination–excision between two loxP sites can be achieved in mice by using the Cre recombinase fused to a mutated ligand binding domain of the human estrogen receptor (Cre-ERT), which binds tamoxifen but not estrogens. DNA excision was induced in a number of tissues after administration of tamoxifen to transgenic mice expressing Cre-ERT under the control of the cytomegalovirus promoter. However, the efficiency of excision varied between tissues, and the highest level (≈40%) was obtained in the skin. To determine the efficiency of excision mediated by Cre-ERT in a given cell type, we have now crossed Cre-ERT-expressing mice with reporter mice in which expression of Escherichia coli β-galactosidase can be induced through Cre-mediated recombination. The efficiency and kinetics of this recombination were analyzed at the cellular level in the epidermis of 6- to 8-week-old double transgenic mice. We show that site-specific excision occurred within a few days of tamoxifen treatment in essentially all epidermis cells expressing Cre-ERT. These results indicate that cell-specific expression of Cre-ERT in transgenic mice can be used for efficient tamoxifen-dependent, Cre-mediated recombination at loci containing loxP sites to generate site-specific somatic mutations in a spatio-temporally controlled manner.

Interaction of the Doa4 Deubiquitinating Enzyme with the Yeast 26S Proteasome

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae Doa4 deubiquitinating enzyme is required for the rapid degradation of protein substrates of the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway. Previous work suggested that Doa4 functions late in the pathway, possibly by deubiquitinating (poly)-ubiquitin-substrate intermediates associated with the 26S proteasome. We now provide evidence for physical and functional interaction between Doa4 and the proteasome. Genetic interaction is indicated by the mutual enhancement of defects associated with a deletion of DOA4 or a proteasome mutation when the two mutations are combined. Physical association of Doa4 and the proteasome was investigated with a new yeast 26S proteasome purification procedure, by which we find that a sizeable fraction of Doa4 copurifies with the protease. Another yeast deubiquitinating enzyme, Ubp5, which is related in sequence to Doa4 but cannot substitute for it even when overproduced, does not associate with the proteasome. DOA4-UBP5 chimeras were made by a novel PCR/yeast recombination method and used to identify an N-terminal 310-residue domain of Doa4 that, when appended to the catalytic domain of Ubp5, conferred Doa4 function, consistent with Ubp enzymes having a modular architecture. Unlike Ubp5, a functional Doa4-Ubp5 chimera associates with the proteasome, suggesting that proteasome binding is important for Doa4 function. Together, these data support a model in which Doa4 promotes proteolysis through removal of ubiquitin from proteolytic intermediates on the proteasome before or after initiation of substrate breakdown.