An??lisis y taxomizaci??n de actividades de ense??anza

Analizar y seleccionar actividades de ense??anza para una posterior taxomizaci??n. Taxomizar las actividades de ense??anza para facilitar la cientificidad de la toma de decisiones en el aula y ofrecer mayor rigor y claridad al pensamiento de los profesores. Dejar patente la estructura did??ctica de las actividades de ense??anza y posibilitar su selecci??n cient??fica. El campo de estudio son las actividades de Ciencias Experimentales, incluidas en textos y curricula escritos para la etapa de 11 a 13 a??os. Se analizaron 14 textos distintos para la selecci??n de actividades. Se seleccionaron 15 actividades de cada texto, de forma aleatoria, a trav??s de la numeraci??n de las actividades y la utilizaci??n de las tablas de Sixto Rios (1972) y Barbancho. En total se analizaron 210 actividades. La metodolog??a de trabajo elegida ha sido la taxomizaci??n num??rica, pero el primer paso consisti?? en la selecci??n de las actividades o elementos a sistematizar. Una vez elegidas ??stas se seleccionaron los caracteres o categor??as a trav??s de las cuales se taxomizaron las actividades (emisor, receptor, canal, mensaje, c??digo verbal, c??digo ic??nico, referente, etc.). Posteriormente, se construy?? la matriz de datos y a partir de ??sta la matriz de semejanzas, hallando el coeficiente de distancias eucl??deas, despues de un an??lisis de cluster obtendremos un fenograma que nos permite hallar las relaciones y amalgamaciones entre las actividades y extraer conclusiones. Matriz de semejanzas. Mediante dos programas inform??ticos: P2M, que es un programa cuyo objeto es formar clusters con los datos o casos que se le impriman, a partir de una cualquiera de las medidas de distancia existente (en este caso eucl??dea); el otro es un programa inform??tico que complementa al anterior (ordena los datos obtenidos, agrupa los datos iguales, halla porcentajes, etc.). ??ste ??ltimo es un programa creado para esta investigaci??n. Resultados del primer tratamiento de datos: 8 tipos de actividades; todas ellas cumplen una funci??n formativa; las de conocimiento son aconsejables para fijar ideas b??sicas; las de comprensi??n son positivas por la personalizaci??n de los contenidos; las de aplicaci??n favorecen la relaci??n teor??a-pr??ctica. Es importante el estudio de la situaci??n contextual antes de proceder a la elecci??n de actividades de un tipo. El segundo programa permite la creaci??n de un banco de datos para archivar todas las actividades de modo que un profesor podr??a elegir los caracteres que m??s le convengan. Escasa variedad de caracteres. Hay que elaborar actividades lo m??s variadas posibles. Hay que adecuar las actividades a los objetivos pretendidos y a la situaci??n contextual del alumno.

Comparación de cuatro sistemas de certificación del ámbito de la dirección de proyectos

En la comunicación se comparan cuatro sistemas de certificación en dirección de proyectos: IPMA, PMI, P2M y PRINCE2. Estos modelos tienen sus propios cuerpos de conocimiento y estándares, sus propios procesos de certificación y se aplican a nivel mundial. De estos modelos, IPMA y PMI son los que tienen un mayor reconocimiento internacional, PRINCE2 es reconocido principalmente en Europa, y P2M en Japón. Quince indicadores se han utilizado para comparar sus diferentes aspectos. Los resultados de la comparación nos han permitido conocer las similitudes y diferencias que existen entre los cuatro sistemas de certificación en dirección de proyectos. Las guías y estándares para la dirección de proyectos han sido desarrollados para diferentes propósitos: 1) brindar conocimiento y prácticas para la dirección de proyectos individuales (Proyectos), 2) brindar conocimiento y prácticas para la dirección de proyectos empresariales (Organizaciones), y 3) el desarrollo, evaluación y certificación de personas (Personas). De este modo, IPMA ha desarrollado sus guías y estándares para Proyectos y Personas; PMI para Proyectos, Organizaciones y Personas; PRINCE2 para Organizaciones; y P2M para Proyectos y Organizaciones.

The influence of age on the pattern and flash visual evoked magnetic response (VEMR)

The visual evoked magnetic response (VEMR) was measured over the occipital cortex to pattern and flash stimuli in 86 normal subjects aged 15-86 years. The latency of the major positive component (outgoing magnetic field) to the pattern reversal stimulus (P100M) increased with age, particularly after 55 years, while the amplitude of the P100M decreased more gradually over the lifespan. By contrast, the latency of the major positive component to the flash stimulus (P2M) increased more slowly with age after about 50 years, while its amplitude may have decreased in only a proportion of the elderly subjects. The changes in the P100M with age may reflect senile changes in the eye and optic nerve, e.g. senile miosis, degenerative changes in the retina or geniculostriate deficits. The P2M may be more susceptible to senile changes in the visual cortex. The data suggest that the contrast channels of visual information processing deteriorate more rapidly with age than the luminance channels.

Visual evoked magnetic fields to flash and pattern in 100 normal subjects

The practicality of recording visual evoked magnetic fields in 100 subjects 15-87 yr of age using a single channel d.c. SQUID second order gradiometer in an unshielded environment was investigated. The pattern reversal response showed a major positive component between 90 and 120 msec (P100M) while the response to flash produced a major positive component between 90 and 140 msec (P2M). Latency norms of the P100M were more variable than the corresponding P100 and P2 visual evoked potentials. The latency of the P100M may show a steep increase with age in most subjects after about 55 yr whereas only a small trend of latency with age was detected for the flash P2M.

The influence of age on the pattern and flash visual evoked field

We have investigated the effect of ageing on the visual system using the relatively new technique of magentoencephalography (MEG). This technique measures the magnetic signals produced by the visual system using a SQUID magnetometer. The magnetic visual evoked field (VEF) was measured over the occipital cortex to pattern and flash stimuli in 86 normal subjects aged 15 - 86 years. Factors that influenced subject defocussing or defixating the stimulus or selective attention were controlled as far as possible. The latency of the major positive component to the pattern reversal stimulus (P100M) increased with age particularly after the age of 55 years while the amplitude of the P100M decreased over the life span. The latency of the major flash component (P2M) increased much more slowly with age, while its amplitude decreased in only a proportion of elderly subjects. Changes in the P100M with age may reflect senile changes in the eye and optic nerve, e.g. senile miosis or degenerative changes in the retina. The P2M may be more susceptible to senile changes in the retina. The data suggest that the spatial frequency channels deteriorate more rapidly with age than the luminance channels and that MEG may be an effective method of studying ageing in the visual system.

Topography of visual evoked magnetic responses to pattern shift, pattern onset and flash stimuli

Different visual stimuli may activate separate channels in the visual system and produce magnetic responses from the human bran which originate from distinct regions of the visual cortex. To test this hypothesis, we have investigated the distribution of visual evoked magnetic responses to three distinct visual stimuli over the occipital region of the scalp with a DC-SQUID second-order gradiometer in an ubshielded environment. Patterned stimuli were presented full field and to the right half field, while a flash stimulus was presented full field only, in five normal subjects. Magnetic responses were recorded from 20 to 42 positions over the occipital scalp. Topographic maps were prepared of the major positive component within the first 150ms to the three stimuli, i.e., the P100m (pattern shift), C11m (pattern onset) and P2m (flash). For the pattern shift stimulus the data suggested the source of the P100m was close to the midline with the current directed towards the medial surface. The data for the pattern onset C11m suggested a source at a similar depth but with the current directed away from the midline towards the lateral surface. The flash P2m appeared to originate closer to the surface of the occipital pole than both the patterned stimuli. Hence the pattern shift (which may represent movement), and the pattern onset C11m (representing contrast and contour) appear to originate in similar areas of brain but to represent different asepcts of cortical processing. By contrast, the flash P2m (representing luminance change) appears to originate in a distinct area of visual cortex closer to the occipital pole.

Normative data for two visually evoked magnetic components

The practicality or recording normative data for two components of the visually evoked magnetic response (VEMR) (P100M and P2M) using a single channel dc-SQUID second order gradiometer in an unshielded environment was investigated. Latency norms of the P100M and P2M were more variable than the corresponding electrical P100 and P2 visual evoked potentials. Methods of improving the normative data for clinical use were discussed.

Visual evoked magnetic responses (VEMR) to flash and pattern reversal stimulation

The problems of using a single channel magnetometer (BTi, Model 601) in an unshielded clinical environment to measure visual evoked magnetic responses (VEMR) were studied. VEMR to flash and pattern reversal stimuli were measured in 100 normal subjects. Two components, the P100M to pattern reversal and P2M to flash, were measured successfully in the majority of patients. The mean latencies of these components in different decades of life were more variable than the visual evoked potentials (VEP) that have been recorded to these stimuli. The latency of the P100M appeared to increase significantly after about 55 years of age whereas little change occurred for the flash P2M. The effects of blur, check size, stimulus size and luminance intensity on the latency and amplitude of the VEMR were studied. Blurring a small (32') check significantly increased latency whereas blurring a large (70') check had little effect on latency. Increasing check size significantly reduced latency of the P100M but had little effect on amplitude. Increasing the field size decreases the latency and increases the amplitude of the P100M. Within a normal subject, most of the temporal variability of the P100M appeared to be associated with run to run variation rather than between recording sessions on the same day or between days. Reproducibility of the P100M was improved to a degree by employing a magnetically shielded room. Increasing flash intensity decreases the latency and increases the amplitude of the P2M component. The magnitude of the effects of varying stimulus parameters on the VEMR were frequently greater than is normally seen in the VEP. The topography of the P100M and P2M varied over the scalp in normal subjects. Full field responses to a large check could be explained as approximately the sum of the half field responses and were consistent with the cruciform model of the visual cortex. Preliminary source localisation data suggested a shallower source in the visual cortex for the flash P2M compared with the P100M. The data suggest that suitable protocols could be devised to obtain normative data of sufficient quality to use the VEMR to flash and pattern clinically.

Localising the auditory N1m with event-related beamformers:localisation accuracy following bilateral and unilateral stimulation

The auditory evoked N1m-P2m response complex presents a challenging case for MEG source-modelling, because symmetrical, phase-locked activity occurs in the hemispheres both contralateral and ipsilateral to stimulation. Beamformer methods, in particular, can be susceptible to localisation bias and spurious sources under these conditions. This study explored the accuracy and efficiency of event-related beamformer source models for auditory MEG data under typical experimental conditions: monaural and diotic stimulation; and whole-head beamformer analysis compared to a half-head analysis using only sensors from the hemisphere contralateral to stimulation. Event-related beamformer localisations were also compared with more traditional single-dipole models. At the group level, the event-related beamformer performed equally well as the single-dipole models in terms of accuracy for both the N1m and the P2m, and in terms of efficiency (number of successful source models) for the N1m. The results yielded by the half-head analysis did not differ significantly from those produced by the traditional whole-head analysis. Any localisation bias caused by the presence of correlated sources is minimal in the context of the inter-individual variability in source localisations. In conclusion, event-related beamformers provide a useful alternative to equivalent-current dipole models in localisation of auditory evoked responses.