A costs structure analysis of the Brazilian sugar and ethanol companies

The Brazil consolidated itself as the largest world producer of sugarcane, sugar and ethanol. The creation of the Programa Nacional do Alcool - PROALCOOL and the growing use of cars with flexible motors were some of the factors that helped to motivate still more the production. Evolutions in the agricultural and industrial research did the Brazilian competitiveness in sugar and ethanol globally elevated, what is evidenced when comparing the amount produced at the country and the production costs, which turned a big one differential. Therefore, the administration of costs is of great relevance to the sugar and ethanol companies, for representing a significant rationalization in the production processes, with economy of resources and the reach of better earnings, besides reducing the operational risk pertinent at the fixed costs of production. Thus, the present work has for objective to analyze the costs structure of sugar and ethanol companies of the Center-south area of the country through an empiric-analytical study based in methodologies and concepts extracted of the costs accounting. It is verified that great part of the costs and operational expenses have variable behavior, a positive factor for the sector reducing the operational risk of the activity. The main restraint of this study is the sample of five years and 10% of the number of plants in Brazil that although they represent 30% of the national production, don`t allow the generalization of the model.

Teollisuuskylmälaitoksen tekniikka ja kustannukset

Työssä on tarkasteltu kompressori- ja absorptiokylmälaitoksien teknisiä ratkaisuja ja laitoksien investointi- ja käyttökustannuksia. Työssä on keskitytty laitoksiin, jotka tuottavat alle nolla Celsiusasteen lämpötiloja. Esimerkkitapauksessa on selvitetty panimon ja meijerin kylmälaitoksen tekniikka ja kustannukset. Tutkimus perustuu kirjallisuuteen, haastatteluihin ja mittaustuloksiin. Kirjallisuuden avulla on selvitetty kylmälaitoksien tekniikkaa ja kustannusten muodostumista. Haastattelujen avulla on kerätty tietoa esimerkkikohteen nykyisistä laitteista, tulevaisuuden kylmätarpeesta ja kohteeseen sopivista laiteratkaisuista. Mittaustietojen avulla on arvioitu kylmäenergian tarve. Työn avulla on saatu näkemys esimerkkikohteeseen sopivasta kylmälaitoksesta ja sen aiheuttamista kustannuksista. Näiden tietojen avulla voidaan selvittää mahdollisten kylmäasiakkaiden kiinnostus kylmäenergian ostamiseen. Hankkeen toteutuessa työtä voidaan käyttää pohjana laitoksen ja kylmätoiminnan suunnittelussa.

Porta-amostras polimérico para espectroscopia infravermelha de sistemas líquidos aquosos ou orgânicos

Infrared spectroscopy laboratories works under permanent care with respect to water contamination, mainly in liquid samples. In this case crystal plates destruction or damage are frequent, increasing the operational expenses. On the other hand, the laboratory which produces such samples must be very careful in drying liquid samples. In this work we develop a simple and inexpensive way to operate in such conditions using polypropylene and HDPE films which were thermally soldered resulting little containers or sample holders. The spectra of sample/sample holder is achieved having the sample holder as background.

Planification et dimensionnement des réseaux optiques de longues distances

Le projet de recherche porte sur l'étude des problèmes de conception et de planification d'un réseau optique de longue distance, aussi appelé réseau de coeur (OWAN-Optical Wide Area Network en anglais). Il s'agit d'un réseau qui transporte des flots agrégés en mode commutation de circuits. Un réseau OWAN relie différents sites à l'aide de fibres optiques connectées par des commutateurs/routeurs optiques et/ou électriques. Un réseau OWAN est maillé à l'échelle d'un pays ou d’un continent et permet le transit des données à très haut débit. Dans une première partie du projet de thèse, nous nous intéressons au problème de conception de réseaux optiques agiles. Le problème d'agilité est motivé par la croissance de la demande en bande passante et par la nature dynamique du trafic. Les équipements déployés par les opérateurs de réseaux doivent disposer d'outils de configuration plus performants et plus flexibles pour gérer au mieux la complexité des connexions entre les clients et tenir compte de la nature évolutive du trafic. Souvent, le problème de conception d'un réseau consiste à prévoir la bande passante nécessaire pour écouler un trafic donné. Ici, nous cherchons en plus à choisir la meilleure configuration nodale ayant un niveau d'agilité capable de garantir une affectation optimale des ressources du réseau. Nous étudierons également deux autres types de problèmes auxquels un opérateur de réseau est confronté. Le premier problème est l'affectation de ressources du réseau. Une fois que l'architecture du réseau en termes d'équipements est choisie, la question qui reste est de savoir : comment dimensionner et optimiser cette architecture pour qu'elle rencontre le meilleur niveau possible d'agilité pour satisfaire toute la demande. La définition de la topologie de routage est un problème d'optimisation complexe. Elle consiste à définir un ensemble de chemins optiques logiques, choisir les routes physiques suivies par ces derniers, ainsi que les longueurs d'onde qu'ils utilisent, de manière à optimiser la qualité de la solution obtenue par rapport à un ensemble de métriques pour mesurer la performance du réseau. De plus, nous devons définir la meilleure stratégie de dimensionnement du réseau de façon à ce qu'elle soit adaptée à la nature dynamique du trafic. Le second problème est celui d'optimiser les coûts d'investissement en capital(CAPEX) et d'opération (OPEX) de l'architecture de transport proposée. Dans le cas du type d'architecture de dimensionnement considérée dans cette thèse, le CAPEX inclut les coûts de routage, d'installation et de mise en service de tous les équipements de type réseau installés aux extrémités des connexions et dans les noeuds intermédiaires. Les coûts d'opération OPEX correspondent à tous les frais liés à l'exploitation du réseau de transport. Étant donné la nature symétrique et le nombre exponentiel de variables dans la plupart des formulations mathématiques développées pour ces types de problèmes, nous avons particulièrement exploré des approches de résolution de type génération de colonnes et algorithme glouton qui s'adaptent bien à la résolution des grands problèmes d'optimisation. Une étude comparative de plusieurs stratégies d'allocation de ressources et d'algorithmes de résolution, sur différents jeux de données et de réseaux de transport de type OWAN démontre que le meilleur coût réseau est obtenu dans deux cas : une stratégie de dimensionnement anticipative combinée avec une méthode de résolution de type génération de colonnes dans les cas où nous autorisons/interdisons le dérangement des connexions déjà établies. Aussi, une bonne répartition de l'utilisation des ressources du réseau est observée avec les scénarios utilisant une stratégie de dimensionnement myope combinée à une approche d'allocation de ressources avec une résolution utilisant les techniques de génération de colonnes. Les résultats obtenus à l'issue de ces travaux ont également démontré que des gains considérables sont possibles pour les coûts d'investissement en capital et d'opération. En effet, une répartition intelligente et hétérogène de ressources d’un réseau sur l'ensemble des noeuds permet de réaliser une réduction substantielle des coûts du réseau par rapport à une solution d'allocation de ressources classique qui adopte une architecture homogène utilisant la même configuration nodale dans tous les noeuds. En effet, nous avons démontré qu'il est possible de réduire le nombre de commutateurs photoniques tout en satisfaisant la demande de trafic et en gardant le coût global d'allocation de ressources de réseau inchangé par rapport à l'architecture classique. Cela implique une réduction substantielle des coûts CAPEX et OPEX. Dans nos expériences de calcul, les résultats démontrent que la réduction de coûts peut atteindre jusqu'à 65% dans certaines jeux de données et de réseau.

Sistema de produção sincronizado : uma aplicação em processos produtivos de propriedade contínuos segundo a teoria das restrições

Este trabalho de conclusão investiga o efeito da geração de estoques intermediários nos indicadores principais empregados na Teoria das Restrições (Ganho, Despesa Operacional e Inventário) em uma unidade industrial de processo produtivo de Propriedade contínuo, que emprega embalagens, matérias-primas obtidas em larga escala e cadeias logísticas de longo curso. Este tipo de indústria produz bens de consumo imediato, com pouca variabilidade, de modo “empurrado”. A principal conseqüência é a perda do sincronismo na cadeia logística, resultando em uma grande quantidade de estoques intermediários e custos crescentes, relacionados principalmente ao custo de manutenção destes estoques. Através dos cinco passos de focalização e das ferramentas lógicas da Teoria das Restrições, propõe-se uma alternativa gerencial, que inclui o algoritmo Tambor-Pulmão-Corda e insere a organização em um processo de melhoria contínua, cujos impactos são avaliados por simulação computacional. Através de técnicas estatísticas e software apropriados, constrói-se um modelo de simulação computacional baseado em dados reais de uma planta produtora de cimento. A partir deste modelo, diferentes cenários são testados, descobrindo-se a condição ótima. Chega-se a uma conclusão, considerando a mudança na política de geração de estoques intermediários e seus impactos na redução de custos e riscos.

MINLP Optimization Algorithm for the Synthesis of Heat and Work Exchange Networks

This paper introduces a new optimization model for the simultaneous synthesis of heat and work exchange networks. The work integration is performed in the work exchange network (WEN), while the heat integration is carried out in the heat exchanger network (HEN). In the WEN synthesis, streams at high-pressure (HP) and low-pressure (LP) are subjected to pressure manipulation stages, via turbines and compressors running on common shafts and stand-alone equipment. The model allows the use of several units of single-shaft-turbine-compressor (SSTC), as well as helper motors and generators to respond to any shortage and/or excess of energy, respectively, in the SSTC axes. The heat integration of the streams occurs in the HEN between each WEN stage. Thus, as the inlet and outlet streams temperatures in the HEN are dependent of the WEN design, they must be considered as optimization variables. The proposed multi-stage superstructure is formulated in mixed-integer nonlinear programming (MINLP), in order to minimize the total annualized cost composed by capital and operational expenses. A case study is conducted to verify the accuracy of the proposed approach. The results indicate that the heat integration between the WEN stages is essential to enhance the work integration, and to reduce the total cost of process due the need of a smaller amount of hot and cold utilities.

MINLP Model for the Synthesis of Heat Exchanger Networks with Handling Pressure of Process Streams

This paper introduces a new mathematical model for the simultaneous synthesis of heat exchanger networks (HENs), wherein the handling pressure of process streams is used to enhance the heat integration. The proposed approach combines generalized disjunctive programming (GDP) and mixed-integer nonlinear programming (MINLP) formulation, in order to minimize the total annualized cost composed by operational and capital expenses. A multi-stage superstructure is developed for the HEN synthesis, assuming constant heat capacity flow rates and isothermal mixing, and allowing for streams splits. In this model, the pressure and temperature of streams must be treated as optimization variables, increasing further the complexity and difficulty to solve the problem. In addition, the model allows for coupling of compressors and turbines to save energy. A case study is performed to verify the accuracy of the proposed model. In this example, the optimal integration between the heat and work decreases the need for thermal utilities in the HEN design. As a result, the total annualized cost is also reduced due to the decrease in the operational expenses related to the heating and cooling of the streams.

Direct Computation of Operational Matrices for Polynomial Bases

Several numerical methods for boundary value problems use integral and differential operational matrices, expressed in polynomial bases in a Hilbert space of functions. This work presents a sequence of matrix operations allowing a direct computation of operational matrices for polynomial bases, orthogonal or not, starting with any previously known reference matrix. Furthermore, it shows how to obtain the reference matrix for a chosen polynomial base. The results presented here can be applied not only for integration and differentiation, but also for any linear operation.

Multi-objective analysis of impacts of distributed generation placement on the operational characteristics of networks for distribution system planning

Recent advances in energy technology generation and new directions in electricity regulation have made distributed generation (DG) more widespread, with consequent significant impacts on the operational characteristics of distribution networks. For this reason, new methods for identifying such impacts are needed, together with research and development of new tools and resources to maintain and facilitate continued expansion towards DG. This paper presents a study aimed at determining appropriate DG sites for distribution systems. The main considerations which determine DG sites are also presented, together with an account of the advantages gained from correct DG placement. The paper intends to define some quantitative and qualitative parameters evaluated by Digsilent (R), GARP3 (R) and DSA-GD software. A multi-objective approach based on the Bellman-Zadeh algorithm and fuzzy logic is used to determine appropriate DG sites. The study also aims to find acceptable DG locations both for distribution system feeders, as well as for nodes inside a given feeder. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Influence of the Operational Constraints in the Active Transmission Losses Allocation via Lagrange Multipliers

This paper presents an approach for the active transmission losses allocation between the agents of the system. The approach uses the primal and dual variable information of the Optimal Power Flow in the losses allocation strategy. The allocation coefficients are determined via Lagrange multipliers. The paper emphasizes the necessity to consider the operational constraints and parameters of the systems in the problem solution. An example, for a 3-bus system is presented in details, as well as a comparative test with the main allocation methods. Case studies on the IEEE 14-bus systems are carried out to verify the influence of the constraints and parameters of the system in the losses allocation.

Physical-chemical and operational performance of an anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) treating swine wastewater

Since hog raising concentrates a huge amount of swine manure in small areas, it is considered by the environmental government organizations to be one of the most potentially pollutant activities. Therefore the main objective of this research was to evaluate by operational criteria and removal efficiency, the performance of a Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR), working as a biological pre-treatment of swine culture effluents. The physical-chemical analyses carried out were: total COD, BOD(5), total solids (TS), fix (TFS) and volatiles (TVS), temperature, pH, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, phosphorus, total acidity and alkalinity. The ABR unit worked with an average efficiency of 65.2 and 76.2%, respectively, concerning total COD and BOD(5), with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) about 15 hours. The results for volumetric organic loading rate (VOLR), organic loading rate (OLR) and hydraulic loading rate (HLR) were: 4.46 kg BOD m(-3) day(-1); 1.81 kg BOD(5) kg TVS(-1) day(-1) and 1.57 m(3) m(-3) day(-1), respectively. The average efficiency of the whole treatment system for total COD and BOD(5) removal were 66.5 and 77.8%, showing an adequate performance in removing die organic matter from swine wastewater.

A novel approach for Modeling the steady-state VSC-based multiline FACTS controllers and their operational constraints

A new, simple approach for modeling and assessing the operation and response of the multiline voltage-source controller (VSC)-based flexible ac transmission system controllers, namely the generalized interline power-flow controller (GIPFC) and the interline power-flow controller (IPFC), is presented in this paper. The model and the analysis developed are based on the converters` power balance method which makes use of the d-q orthogonal coordinates to thereafter present a direct solution for these controllers through a quadratic equation. The main constraints and limitations that such devices present while controlling the two independent ac systems considered, will also be evaluated. In order to examine and validate the steady-state model initially proposed, a phase-shift VSC-based GIPFC was also built in the Alternate Transients Program program whose results are also included in this paper. Where applicable, a comparative evaluation between the GIPFC and the IPFC is also presented.

An air-standard cycle and a thermodynamic perspective on operational limits of Ranque-Hilsh or vortex tubes

A Thermodynamic air-standard cycle was envisaged for Ranque-Hilsh (R-H) or Vortex Tubes to provide relevant Thermodynamic analysis and tools for setting operating limits according to the conservation laws of mass and energy, as well as the constraint of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The study used an integral or control volume approach and resulted in establishing working equations for evaluating the performance of an R-H tube. The work proved that the coefficient of performance does not depend on the R-H tube operating mode, i.e., the same value is obtained independently if the R-H tube operates either as a heat pump or as a refrigeration device. It was also shown that the isentropic coefficient of performance displays optima values of cold and hot mass fractions for a given operating pressure ratio. Finally, the study was concluded by comparing the present analysis with some experimental data available in the literature for operating pressures ranging 2-11 atm. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

In-Line Monitoring of Particle Size during Emulsion Polymerization under Different Operational Conditions using NIR Spectroscopy

In the present work, the sensitivity of NIR spectroscopy toward the evolution of particle size was studied during emulsion homopolymerization of styrene (Sty) and emulsion copolymerization of vinyl acetate-butyl acrylate conducted in a semibatch stirred tank and a tubular pulsed sieve plate reactor, respectively. All NIR spectra were collected online with a transflectance probe immersed into the reaction medium. The spectral range used for the NIR monitoring was from 9 500 to 13 000 cm(-1), where the absorbance of the chemical components present is minimal and the changes in the NIR spectrum can be ascribed to the effects of light scattering by the polymer particles. Off-line measurements of the average diameter of the polymer particles by DLS were used as reference values for the development of the multi-variate NIR calibration models based on partial least squares. Results indicated that, in the spectral range studied, it is possible to monitor the evolution of the average size of the polymer particles during emulsion polymerization reactions. The inclusion of an additional spectral range, from 5 701 to 6 447 cm(-1), containing information on absorbances (""chemical information"") in the calibration models was also evaluated.