Heavy metal tolerance patterns of total heterotrophic bacteria isolated from the soils of Mahatma Gandhi University campus, Kottayam, Kerala

Industrialization of our society has led to an increased production and discharge of both xenobiotic and natural chemical substances. Many of these chemicals will end up in the soil. Pollution of soils with heavy metals is becoming one of the most severe ecological and human health hazards. Elevated levels of heavy metals decrease soil microbial activity and bacteria need to develop different mechanisms to confer resistances to these heavy metals. Bacteria develop heavy-metal resistance mostly for their survivals, especially a significant portion of the resistant phenomena was found in the environmental strains. Therefore, in the present work, we check the multiple metal tolerance patterns of bacterial strains isolated from the soils of MG University campus, Kottayam. A total of 46 bacterial strains were isolated from different locations of the campus and tested for their resistant to 5 common metals in use (lead, zinc, copper, cadmium and nickel) by agar dilution method. The results of the present work revealed that there was a spatial variation of bacterial metal resistance in the soils of MG University campus, this may be due to the difference in metal contamination in different sampling location. All of the isolates showed resistance to one or more heavy metals selected. Tolerance to lead was relatively high followed by zinc, nickel, copper and cadmium. About 33% of the isolates showed very high tolerance (>4000μg/ml) to lead. Tolerance to cadmium (65%) was rather low (<100 μg/ml). Resistance to zinc was in between 100μg/ml - 1000μg/ml and the majority of them shows resistance in between 200μg/ml - 500μg/ml. Nickel resistance was in between 100μg/ml - 1000μg/ml and a good number of them shows resistance in between 300μg/ml - 400μg/ml. Resistance to copper was in between <100μg/ml - 500μg/ml and most of them showed resistance in between 300μg/ml - 400μg/ml. From the results of this study, it was concluded that heavy metal-resistant bacteria are widely distributed in the soils of MG university campus and the tolerance of heavy metals varied among bacteria and between locations

Stability of copper tolerance in Thiobacillus ferrooxidans

A strain of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans MAL-4-1 was adapted to grow at higher concentrations of copper by repeated subculturing in the presence of increasing levels of added cupric ions in 9K medium. The strains adapted to copper were found to be more efficient in bioleaching of copper from concentrates. When copper tolerant strains were back cultured repeatedly in 9K medium without cupric ions, the initially developed metal tolerance was observed to be lost. This indicates that the copper tolerance developed is stress-dependent and not a permanent trait of the adapted strain.

Xanthoria parietina as a biomonitor of airborne heavy metal pollution in forest sites in the North East of Morocco

Xanthoria parietina, common foliose lichen, growing in its natural habitat, was analysed for the concentration of five heavy metals (Fe, Cr, Zn, Pb and Cu) from different forest sites of North East of Morocco (Kenitra, Sidi Boughaba, Mkhinza, Ceinture Verte near Temara city, Skhirate, Bouznika and Mohammedia). The quantification was carried out by inductively coupled plasma - atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Results were highly significant p<0,001. The concentration of metals is correlated with the vehicular activity and urbanization. The total metal concentration is highest at the Kenitra area, followed by Ceinture Verte site near Temara city, which experience heavy traffic throughout the year. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of particulate matter on lichen of Xanthoria parietina was assessed as a complementary technique to wet chemical analysis for source apportionment of airborne contaminant. Analysis revealed high level of Cu, Cr, Zn and Pb in samples near roads.  

Toxic interactions of metal ions (Cd2+, Pb2+, Zn2+ and Sb3- on in vitro biomass production of ectomycorrhizal fungi

A number of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi, from sites uncontaminated by toxic metals, were investigated to determine their sensitivity to Cd^2-, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺ and Sb^3-, measured as an inhibition of fungal biomass production. Isolates were grown in liquid media amended with the metals, individually (over a range of concentrations) and in combination (at single concentrations) to determine any significant interactions between the metals. Significant interspecific variation in sensitivity to Cd²⁺ and Zn²⁺ was recorded, while Pb²⁺ and Sb^3- individually had little effect. The presence of Pb²⁺ and Sb^3- in the media did however, ameliorate Cd²⁺ and Zn²⁺ toxicity in some circumstances. Interactions between Cd²⁺ and Zn²⁺ were investigated further over a range of concentrations. Zn²⁺ was found to significantly ameliorate the toxicity of Cd²⁺ to three of the four isolates tested. The influence of Zn²⁺ varied between ECM species and with the concentrations of metals tested.

Do ectomycorrhizal fungi exhibit adaptive tolerance to potentially toxic metals in the environment?

The effects of potentially toxic metals on ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi and their higher plant hosts are examined in this review. Investigations at a species and community level have revealed wide inter- and intraspecific variation in sensitivity to metals. Adaptive and constitutive mechanisms of ECM tolerance are proposed and discussed in relation to proven tolerance mechanisms in bacteria, yeasts and plants. Problems with methodology and research priorities are highlighted. These include the need for a detailed understanding of the genetic basis of tolerance in the ECM symbiosis, and for studies of ECM community dynamics in polluted sites.

Biomass allocation, phosphorus nutrition and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal infection in clones of Yorkshire Fog, Holcus lanatus L. (Poaceae) that differ in their phosphate uptake kinetics and tolerance to arsenate

Biomass and phosphorus allocation were determined in arsenate tolerant and non-tolerant clones of the grass Holcus lanatus L. in both solution culture and in soil. Arsenate is a phosphate analogue and is taken up by the phosphate uptake system. Tolerance to arsenate in this grass is achieved by suppression of arsenate (and phosphate) influx. When clones differing in their arsenate tolerance were grown in solution culture with a range of phosphate levels, a tolerant clone did not fare as well as a non-tolerant at low levels of phosphate nutrition in that it had reduced shoot biomass production, increased biomass allocation to the roots and lower shoot phosphorus concentration. At a higher level of phosphate nutrition there was little or no difference in these parameters, suggesting that differences at lower levels of phosphate nutrition were due solely to differences in the rates of phosphate accumulation. In experiments in sterile soil (potting compost) the situation was more complicated with tolerant plants having lower growth rates but higher phosphorus concentrations. The gene for arsenate tolerance is polymorphic in arsenate uncontaminated populations. When phosphorus concentration of tolerant phenotypes was determined in one such population, again tolerants had a higher phosphorus status than non-tolerants. Tolerants also had higher rates of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) infection. The ecological implications of these results are that it appears that suppression of the high affinity uptake system, is at least in part, compensated by increased mycorrhizal infection. © 1994 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Tolerance to copper and zinc of Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans isolated from sewage sludge

The effect of copper and zinc ions on sulphur oxidation by Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans, strain SFR01, isolated from anaerobic sewage sludge was assessed, resulting in tolerance levels up to 20 and 200 mmol l(-1) for copper and zinc, respectively. The tolerance levels obtained were higher than the concentration of copper and zinc usually found in the collected sewage sludge. The tolerance levels obtained indicate no constraints for sludge bioleaching of those metals due to their toxicities to the indigenous A. thiooxidans.

Mycorrhization alters foliar soluble amino acid composition and influences tolerance to Pb in Calopogonium mucunoides

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Functional and expression analysis of the metal-inducible dmeRF system from Rhizobium legumionosarum bv. viciae

A gene encoding a homolog to the cation diffusion facilitator protein DmeF from Cupriavidus metallidurans has been identified in the genome of Rhizobium leguminosarum UPM791. The R. leguminosarum dmeF gene is located downstream of an open reading frame (designated dmeR) encoding a protein homologous to the nickel- and cobalt-responsive transcriptional regulator RcnR from Escherichia coli. Analysis of gene expression showed that the R. leguminosarum dmeRF genes are organized as a transcriptional unit whose expression is strongly induced by nickel and cobalt ions, likely by alleviating the repressor activity of DmeR on dmeRF transcription. An R. leguminosarum dmeRF mutant strain displayed increased sensitivity to Co(II) and Ni(II), whereas no alterations of its resistance to Cd(II), Cu(II), or Zn(II) were observed. A decrease of symbiotic performance was observed when pea plants inoculated with an R. leguminosarum dmeRF deletion mutant strain were grown in the presence of high concentrations of nickel and cobalt. The same mutant induced significantly lower activity levels of NiFe hydrogenase in microaerobic cultures. These results indicate that the R. leguminosarum DmeRF system is a metal-responsive efflux mechanism acting as a key element for metal homeostasis in R. leguminosarum under free-living and symbiotic conditions. The presence of similar dmeRF gene clusters in other Rhizobiaceae suggests that the dmeRF system is a conserved mechanism for metal tolerance in legume endosymbiotic bacteria.

大蒜、绊根草中重金属抗性分子机制的研究

日益加剧的重金属污染已经危害到了全球的生态环境以及人类健康。在分子水平上阐明植物中的重金属抗性机制并应用于环境修复和绿色农业是植物科学和环境科学以及农业科学的交叉点和新的生长点。为了了解植物重金属抗性的分子机制，我们的研究主要是从重金属抗性植物材料大蒜(Allium sativumL．)和绊根草(Cynodon dactylon)中分离重金属抗性相关基因，并研究它们在重金属抗性机制中的功能。 在高等植物中有迹象表明，一种富含半胱氨酸的低分子量蛋白．类金属硫蛋白 (Metallothioneins Like，MTs Like)和一类具有Y-(Glu-Cys) n-Gly特殊结构的多肽一植物络合素(Phytochelatins，PCs)在重金属抗性机制中占有重要地位。然而人们对于同一种植物中这两种重金属结合肽作用的相互关系还缺乏了解，同时对于MT Like基因以及PCs合酶基因在同一种植物中的表达模式如金属离子专一性、时空表达特点等，还投有文献报道，因此本文将首先以这两个基因为切入点进行研究。 本研究采用RACE的方法，从大蒜中分离得到了类金属硫蛋白(MT-Like)的cDNA序列(GenBank Accession No.AY050510)，PCR和SoutheLrn Blot分析表明，大蒜基因组中不仅存在类金属硫蛋白基因，而且可能以基因家族的形式存在。对获得的MT Like cDNA进行的序列分析及同源性分析表明，大蒜MT Like cDNA含有一个完整的开放阅读框架，编码73个氨基酸，其中12个为半胱氨酸，占氨基酸总数的1 6.4%，并与其他植物如水稻、小麦、紫羊茅草中的类金属硫蛋白基因同源性较高，其中最高达89%。对该基因编码的氨基酸序列和结构分析表明在N-端、c-端结构域中分别含有3个典型的金属硫蛋白的结构模式Cys-Xaa-Cys，属于典型的Type-1类金属硫蛋白。这些Cys-Xaa-Cys特征结构表明大蒜MT Like基因编码的蛋白可以结合二价金属离子。重金属胁迫下大蒜根中MT Like基因在转录水平的表达检测表明，MT Like基因的表达受重金属离子Cu2+、Cd2+的诱导，暗示MT Like基因在大蒜对重金属的抗性中有重要作用。此外，用能谱电镜技术研究大蒜中重金属的积累与分布，以及用组织原位杂交技术分析MT Like基因的表达定位与重金属的积累、转运的关系已在进行之中。 植物络合素也是富含巯基的多肽化合物，在重金属抗性中起重要作用。由植物络合素结构中存在的Y一酰胺键或β-Ala可知PCs不是基因表达的直接产物，而是以GSH为前体的酶促反应产物。目前已知y一谷氨酰半胱氨酸二肽转肽酶(简称为PCs合酶，phytochelatin synthase，PCS)是PCs合成途径的关键酶，编码这一关键酶的基因目前已在小麦、拟南芥菜和裂殖酵母中克隆。由于这一基因在不同物种中的保守性较低，其克隆较困难。本研究通过设计植物络合素台酶基因简并引物，从大蒜中扩增得到了345bp的cDNA序列。序列分析和推测的氨基酸序列同源性比较表明，此序列的翻译产物与已知的植物络合素合酶同源性最高，此cDNA序列应为大蒜植物络合素合酶基因的部分cDNA序列(GenBank Accession No.AF384110)。目前大蒜植物络台素合酶基因的全长序列的扩增，以及这两种与重金属抗性有关的基因(MT Like，PCS)的表达模式仍在研究中。 本文还尝试了利用酵母重金属敏感突变株M379/8功能互补的方法从重金属抗性植物绊根革中分离新的重金属抗性相关基因。构建了用于转化的酵母质粒表达文库，探索了酵母转化体系建立的条件。曾尝试多种转化方法，并对其中的条件进行了优化改进。下一步的工作将集中在合适的酵母突变体的筛选或穿梭表达载体的选择标记基因替换上

绊根草重金属抗性相关基因的克隆及其功能分析及可耐受偏二甲肼的芦苇变异株系的筛选

本研究利用酵母功能互补方法和RACE的方法从具有较强抗逆能力的绊根草中克隆了9个与重金属抗性相关的克隆，并对部分基因的表达调控及功能进行了初步研究。同时还利用细胞工程技术筛选到了具有较强的耐受火箭推进齐-偏二甲肼(UDMH)的芦苇的变异株系，为以后用人工湿地系统处理受偏二甲肼污染的废水奠定了基础。 本研究通过酵母功能互补法克隆到了五个基因，分别为CdSRP、CdTETH、 CdASP、CdMT2和CdTER1。CdSRP可能是一种衰老相关基因;CdTETH编码的产物可能是组成TRAPP复合体的一个亚基;CdASP是一个功能未知的基因;CdMT2是一个编码Type Ⅱ型金属硫蛋白基因;CdTER1可能是编码一个TERl-like家族蛋白成员的基因。用这五个基因分别转化因Acr基因缺失而对As敏感的酵母菌株FD236-6A，所获得的转化子对As的抗性均有提高，其中以CdMT2、CdTER1和CdASP的作用最为明显。这些基因的表达调控方式以及与其它重金属抗性的关系正在研究中。 本研究还利用RACE的方法克隆了一个谷胱甘肽S-转移酶基因，CdGSTFl;两个植物络合素合酶基因，CdPCSI和CdPCSⅡ，和一个TypeⅠ型金属硫蛋白基因CdMT1。CdGSTF1属于phi类GST基因，Northern-blotting分析表明，CdGSTF1在绊根草根部的表达受Cd2+的诱导，暗示其可能具有解除氧自由基或氢过氧化物的毒性的作用。CdPCSI和CdPCSⅡ的同源性较高，表明绊根草含有两个以上的PCs合酶的基因。参照前人的方法对CdPCSI和CdPCSII的氨基酸序列进行分析，发现它们含有六个非常相近的Cd2+结合位点，这两个基因的功能及其调控方式有何差异尚需进一步的研究。cdMT1与用酵母功能互补法克隆到的CdMT2属于不同类型的MT基因，对它们之间很可能存在的功能、组织特异性等方面的差异性进行了讨论。 四氧化二氮／偏二甲肼是常用的航天器双组元液体推进剂。偏二甲肼易挥发，有致癌、致畸、致突变的毒性。在推进剂贮存、运输、转注、火箭发动机试车、火箭发射、管道及设备冲洗中产生的含有偏二甲肼的废水能够对卫星发射基地的地下水源和空气造成污染。因此迫切需要培育能够净化偏二甲肼污水的植物。 本研究利用生长在卫星发射基地的野生芦苇的种子诱导愈伤组织，进而通过逐步提高偏二甲肼筛选压力的方式从中筛选出具有较强抗性的愈伤组织，然后诱导其分化。目前已经得到能够在含有1.63 mmol/L和3.26 mmol/L偏二甲肼的分化培养基中生长良好的芦苇再生苗，并已成功转移至温室中。抗性分化苗对污水的处理效果和耐受偏二甲肼的机理正在研究中。

利用多基因转化技术培育重金属超富集植物的研究

植物耐受和积累重金属的细胞学基础是植物细胞内存在一些能够络合和区隔化金属离子的机制。细胞中络合重金属离子最重要的小肽分子是谷胱甘肽(GSH)和植物络合素(PCs)，而YCFⅠ基因编码的ABC-type 液泡膜转运蛋白负责将重金属离子及其与上述小肽形成的复合物转运进入细胞液泡中，即将重金属离子区隔化。植物细胞中合成GSH 和PCs 的关键酶分别是γ－谷氨酰氨半胱氨酸合成酶(GSHⅠ)和植物络合素合酶(PCS)，他们的编码基因分别为GSHⅠ 和PCS 。此外定位于细胞质中的小囊泡上且对二价阳离子的吸收和转运有重要作用的SMF2 蛋白可能也参与重金属离子的区隔化过程。 为了改良植物使之能够应用于清除土壤中的重金属污染，本研究基于植物耐受和积累重金属的细胞学机制，分别将酿酒酵母来源的GSHⅠ、YCFⅠ和SMF2 基因，以及GSHⅠ、YCFⅠ基因分别与镉抗性植物大蒜来源的AsPCSⅠ 基因构建为不同的基因组合表达载体，转化模式植物拟南芥。对不同组合转基因拟南芥的功能分析表明： 1、酵母来源的基因GHSⅠ、YCFⅠ分别在拟南芥中异源超表达可以在一定程度上提高转基因拟南芥耐受、积累重金属的能力;其中GSHⅠ基因在拟南芥超表达可以提高转基因拟南芥合成GSH 的能力，转基因拟南芥细胞中GSH 浓度比野生型增加。 2、将GSHⅠ基因和来自大蒜的AsPCSⅠ基因同时在拟南芥中超表达能够显著提高转基因拟南芥耐受和积累重金属的能力，且积累和耐受能力显著高于分别转GSHⅠ或AsPCSⅠ的单价转基因株系;将YCFⅠ基因和AsPCSⅠ基因同时在拟南芥中超表达也能够显著提高转基因拟南芥耐受和积累重金属的能力，且积累和耐受能力显著高于分别转YCFⅠ或AsPCSⅠ的单价转基因株系。两种双价转基因株系GSHⅠ＋AsPCSⅠ和YCFⅠ＋AsPCSⅠ在积累和耐受不同重金属胁迫方面没有明显差别。 3、将SMF2 基因在拟南芥中异源表达，研究了植物中囊泡转运是否参与了重金属离子的吸收和区隔化过程。研究结果表明：超表达SMF2 基因的拟南芥尽管耐受重金属胁迫的能力与野生型没有明显差异，但其积累重金属的能力显著提高。这为证明植物中小囊泡转运参与重金属转运提供了间接证据。 综上所述，同时将多个参与植物对重金属络合、转运和区隔化作用的关键基因在转基因植物中表达可以提高植物耐受和积累重金属的能力，是培育可用于植物修复的新型工程植物的值得探索的途径。本论文所设计和构建的双价基因组合及其对目标植物的转化，在环境重金属污染的清除中有潜在的应用价值。

Characterizing a monotopic membrane enzyme. Biochemical, enzymatic and crystallization studies on Aquifex aeolicus sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase

Monotopic membrane proteins are membrane proteins that interact with only one leaflet of the lipid bilayer and do not possess transmembrane spanning segments. They are endowed with important physiological functions but until now only few of them have been studied. Here we present a detailed biochemical, enzymatic and crystallographic characterization of the monotopic membrane protein sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase. Sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase is a ubiquitous enzyme involved in sulfide detoxification, in sulfide-dependent respiration and photosynthesis, and in heavy metal tolerance. It may also play a crucial role in mammals, including humans, because sulfide acts as a neurotransmitter in these organisms. We isolated and purified sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase from the native membranes of the hyperthermophilic bacterium Aquifex aeolicus. We studied the pure and solubilized enzyme by denaturing and non-denaturing polyacrylamide electrophoresis, size-exclusion chromatography, cross-linking, analytical ultracentrifugation, visible and ultraviolet spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and electron microscopy. Additionally, we report the characterization of its enzymatic activity before and after crystallization. Finally, we discuss the crystallization of sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase in respect to its membrane topology and we propose a classification of monotopic membrane protein crystal lattices. Our data support and complement an earlier description of the three-dimensional structure of A. aeolicus sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase (M. Marcia, U. Ermler, G. Peng, H. Michel, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 106 (2009) 9625-9630) and may serve as a reference for further studies on monotopic membrane proteins. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.