Post-translational lysine-acetylation of Ran and its regulation by Sirtuin deacetylases

Through recent advances in high-throughput mass spectrometry it has become evident that post-translational N-(epsilon)-lysine-acetylation is a modification found on thousands of proteins of all cellular compartments and all essential physiological processes. Many aspects in the biology of lysine-acetylation are poorly understood, including its regulation by lysine-acetyltransferases and lysine-deacetylases (KDACs). Here, the role of this modification was investigated for the small GTP-binding protein Ran, which, inter alia, is essential for the regulation of nucleocytoplasmic transport. To this end, site-specifically acetylated Ran was produced in E. coli by genetic code expansion. For five previously identified sites, Ran acetylation was tested regarding its impact on the intrinsic GTP hydrolysis rate, the assembly of export complexes (modeled in vitro with the export receptor CRM1 and the export substrate Spn1) and the interaction of Ran with its GTPase activation protein RanGAP and RanBP1. Overall, mild effects of Ran acetylation were observed for intrinsic and RanGAP-stimulated GTP hydrolysis rates. The interaction of active Ran with RanBP1 was negatively influenced by Ran acetylation at K159. Moreover, CRM1 bound to Ran acetylated at K37, K99 or K159 interacted more strongly with Spn1. Thus, lysine-acetylation interferes with essential aspects of Ran function. An in vitro screen was performed to identify potential Ran KDACs. The NAD+-dependent KDACs of the Sirtuin class showed activity towards two acetylation sites of Ran, K37 and K71. The specificity of Sirtuins was further analyzed based on an additional Ran acetylation site, K38. Since deacetylation of RanAcK38 was much slower compared to RanAcK37, di-acetylated RanAcK37/38 was tested next. The deacetylation rate of di-acetylated Ran was comparable to that of RanAcK37. Deacetylation experiments under single turnover conditions revealed that deacetylation occurs first at the K38 site in the di-acetylated RanAcK37/38 background. The ability of Sirtuins to deacetylate two adjacent AcKs was further investigated based on two proteins, which had previously been found to be di-acetylated and targeted by Sirtuins, namely the tumor suppressor protein p53 and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 (PEPCK1). p53 was readily deacetylated at two di-acetylation sites (K372/372 and K381/382), whereas PEPCK1 was not deacetylated in vitro. Taken together, these results have important implications for the substrate specificity of Sirtuins.

Characterization of Trypanosoma cruzi Sirtuins as Possible Drug Targets for Chagas Disease

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

L'acide valproïque inhibe la progression dans le cycle cellulaire chez Saccharomyces cerevisiae

L’acétylation est une modification post-traductionnelle des protéines essentielles. Elle est impliquée dans bon nombre de processus cellulaires importants comme la régulation de la structure de la chromatine et le recrutement de protéines. Deux groupes d’enzymes, soient les lysines acétyltransférases et les lysines désacétylases, régulent cette modification, autant sur les histones que sur les autres protéines. Au cours des dernières années, de petites molécules inhibitrices des désacétylases ont été découvertes. Certaines d’entre elles semblent prometteuses contre diverses maladies telles le cancer. L’acide valproïque, un inhibiteur de deux des trois classes des désacétylases, a un effet antiprolifératif chez plusieurs organismes modèles. Toutefois, les mécanismes cellulaires sous-jacents à cet effet restent encore méconnus. Ce mémoire met en lumière l’effet pH dépendant de l’acide valproïque sur différentes voies cellulaires importantes chez la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Il démontre que ce composé a la capacité d’inhiber la transition entre les phases G1 et S par son action sur l’expression des cyclines de la phase G1. De plus, il inhibe l’activation de la kinase principale de la voie activée suite à un stress à la paroi cellulaire. L’acide valproïque occasionne également un arrêt dans la réplication de l’ADN sans y causer de dommage. Il s’agit là d’un effet unique qui, à notre connaissance, n’est pas observable avec d’autres agents qui inhibent la progression en phase S.

L'acide valproïque inhibe la progression dans le cycle cellulaire chez Saccharomyces cerevisiae

L’acétylation est une modification post-traductionnelle des protéines essentielles. Elle est impliquée dans bon nombre de processus cellulaires importants comme la régulation de la structure de la chromatine et le recrutement de protéines. Deux groupes d’enzymes, soient les lysines acétyltransférases et les lysines désacétylases, régulent cette modification, autant sur les histones que sur les autres protéines. Au cours des dernières années, de petites molécules inhibitrices des désacétylases ont été découvertes. Certaines d’entre elles semblent prometteuses contre diverses maladies telles le cancer. L’acide valproïque, un inhibiteur de deux des trois classes des désacétylases, a un effet antiprolifératif chez plusieurs organismes modèles. Toutefois, les mécanismes cellulaires sous-jacents à cet effet restent encore méconnus. Ce mémoire met en lumière l’effet pH dépendant de l’acide valproïque sur différentes voies cellulaires importantes chez la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Il démontre que ce composé a la capacité d’inhiber la transition entre les phases G1 et S par son action sur l’expression des cyclines de la phase G1. De plus, il inhibe l’activation de la kinase principale de la voie activée suite à un stress à la paroi cellulaire. L’acide valproïque occasionne également un arrêt dans la réplication de l’ADN sans y causer de dommage. Il s’agit là d’un effet unique qui, à notre connaissance, n’est pas observable avec d’autres agents qui inhibent la progression en phase S.

Targeting histone deacetylases for the treatment of disease : Epigenetics Review Series

The 'histone code' is a well-established hypothesis describing the idea that specific patterns of post-translational modifications to histones act like a molecular 'code' recognized and used by non-histone proteins to regulate specific chromatin functions. One modification, which has received significant attention, is that of histone acetylation. The enzymes that regulate this modification are described as lysine acetyltransferases or KATs, and histone deacetylases or HDACs. Due to their conserved catalytic domain HDACs have been actively targeted as a therapeutic target. The pro-inflammatory environment is increasingly being recognized as a critical element for both degenerative diseases and cancer. The present review will discuss the current knowledge surrounding the clinical potential and current development of histone deacetylases for the treatment of diseases for which a pro-inflammatory environment plays important roles, and the molecular mechanisms by which such inhibitors may play important functions in modulating the pro-inflammatory environment. © 2009 Foundation for Cellular and Molecular Medicine/Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Development and characterization of lysine based tripeptide analogues as inhibitors of Sir2 activity

Sirtuins are NAD(+) dependent deacetylases that modulate various essential cellular functions. Development of peptide based inhibitors of Sir2s would prove useful both as pharmaceutical agents and as effectors by which downstream cellular alterations can be monitored. Click chemistry that utilizes Huisgen's 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition permits attachment of novel modifications onto the side chain of lysine. Herein, we report the synthesis of peptide analogues prepared using click reactions on N epsilon-propargyloxycarbonyl protected lysine residues and their characterization as inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum Sir2 activity. The peptide based inhibitors exhibited parabolic competitive inhibition with respect to acetylated-peptide substrate and parabolic non-competitive inhibition with NAD(+) supporting the formation of EI2 and E.NAD(+).I-2 complexes. Cross-competition inhibition analysis with the non-competitive inhibitor nicotinamide (NAM) ruled out the possibility of the NAM-binding site being the second inhibitor binding site, suggesting the presence of a unique alternate pocket commodating the inhibitor. One of these compounds was also found to be a potent inhibitor of the intraerythrocytic growth of P. falciparum with 50% inhibitory concentration in the micromolar range.

The Molecular Basis of Lysine Acetylation: Addition, Removal, and Recognition

Acetyltransferases and deacetylases catalyze the addition and removal, respectively, of acetyl groups to the epsilon-amino group of protein lysine residues. This modification can affect the function of a protein through several means, including the recruitment of specific binding partners called acetyl-lysine readers. Acetyltransferases, deacetylases, and acetyl-lysine readers have emerged as crucial regulators of biological processes and prominent targets for the treatment of human disease. This work describes a combination of structural, biochemical, biophysical, cell-biological, and organismal studies undertaken on a set of proteins that cumulatively include all steps of the acetylation process: the acetyltransferase MEC-17, the deacetylase SIRT1, and the acetyl-lysine reader DPF2. Tubulin acetylation by MEC-17 is associated with stable, long-lived microtubule structures. We determined the crystal structure of the catalytic domain of human MEC-17 in complex with the cofactor acetyl-CoA. The structure in combination with an extensive enzymatic analysis of MEC-17 mutants identified residues for cofactor and substrate recognition and activity. A large, evolutionarily conserved hydrophobic surface patch distal to the active site was shown to be necessary for catalysis, suggesting that specificity is achieved by interactions with the alpha-tubulin substrate that extend outside of the modified surface loop. Experiments in C. elegans showed that while MEC-17 is required for touch sensitivity, MEC-17 enzymatic activity is dispensible for this behavior. SIRT1 deacetylates a wide range of substrates, including p53, NF-kappaB, FOXO transcription factors, and PGC-1-alpha, with roles in cellular processes ranging from energy metabolism to cell survival. SIRT1 activity is uniquely controlled by a C-terminal regulatory segment (CTR). Here we present crystal structures of the catalytic domain of human SIRT1 in complex with the CTR in an apo form and in complex with a cofactor and a pseudo-substrate peptide. The catalytic domain adopts the canonical sirtuin fold. The CTR forms a beta-hairpin structure that complements the beta-sheet of the NAD^+-binding domain, covering an essentially invariant, hydrophobic surface. A comparison of the apo and cofactor bound structures revealed conformational changes throughout catalysis, including a rotation of a smaller subdomain with respect to the larger NAD^+-binding subdomain. A biochemical analysis identified key residues in the active site, an inhibitory role for the CTR, and distinct structural features of the CTR that mediate binding and inhibition of the SIRT1 catalytic domain. DPF2 represses myeloid differentiation in acute myelogenous leukemia. Finally, we solved the crystal structure of the tandem PHD domain of human DPF2. We showed that DPF2 preferentially binds H3 tail peptides acetylated at Lys14, and binds H4 tail peptides with no preference for acetylation state. Through a structural and mutational analysis we identify the molecular basis of histone recognition. We propose a model for the role of DPF2 in AML and identify the DPF2 tandem PHD finger domain as a promising novel target for anti-leukemia therapeutics.

Role of histone deacetylases in vascular cell homeostasis and arteriosclerosis

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are a family of enzymes that remove acetyl groups from lysine residues of histone proteins, a modification that results in epigenetic modulation of gene expression. Although originally shown to be involved in cancer and neurological disease, HDACs are also found to play crucial roles in arteriosclerosis. This review summarizes the effects of HDACs and HDAC inhibitors on proliferation, migration, and apoptosis of endothelial and smooth muscle cells. In addition, an updated discussion of HDACs' recently discovered effects on stem cell differentiation and atherosclerosis is provided. Overall, HDACs appear to be promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of arteriosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases.

Study of histone H3 lysine 56 deacetylation in saccharomyces cerevisiae

Chez la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae, l'acétylation de l'histone H3 sur la lysine 56 (H3K56ac) est présente sur les histones néo-synthétisées déposées derrière les fourches de réplication et est essentielle pour préserver la viabilité cellulaire en réponse au dommage à l'ADN. La désacétylation d'H3K56 sur l'ensemble du génome catalysée par Hst3 et Hst4 et a lieu en phase G2 ou M. H3K56ac est une lame à double tranchant. L'absence d'H3K56ac rend les cellules sensibles aux dommages à l'ADN. En revanche, un excès d'acétylation d'H3K56 dans un mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ a des conséquences encore plus sévères tels que la thermo-sensibilité, l'hypersensibilité aux agents génotoxiques, l'instabilité génomique ainsi qu'une courte durée de vie réplicative. Les désacétylases Hst3 et Hst4 sont étroitement régulées au cours du cycle cellulaire afin de permettre à l'H3K56ac d'exercer son rôle en réponse aux dommages à l'ADN tout en évitant les conséquences néfastes de l'hyperacétylation d'H3K56. Dans cette thèse, nous avons identifié la machinerie moléculaire responsable de la dégradation de Hst3. De plus, nous avons exploré les raisons pour lesquelles l'absence de désacétylation donne lieu aux phénotypes du mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ. Au chapitre 2, nous démontrons que la dégradation d'Hst3 peut être complétée avant l'anaphase. Ceci suggère que la désacétylation de H3K56 a lieu durant une courte fenêtre du cycle cellulaire se situant entre la complétion de la phase S et la métaphase. De plus, nous avons identifié deux sites de phosphorylation d'Hst3 par la kinase cycline-dépendante 1 (Cdk1) et démontré que ces évènements de phosphorylation conduisent à la dégradation d'Hst3 in vivo. Nous avons aussi démontré que l'ubiquityltransférase Cdc34 et l'ubiquitine ligase SCFCdc4 sont requises pour la dégradation d'Hst3. Finalement, nous avons montré que la phosphorylation d'Hst3 par la kinase mitotique Clb2-Cdk1 peut directement entraîner l'ubiquitylation d'Hst3 par SCFCdc4 in vitro. Au chapitre 3, nous avons étudié les mécanismes moléculaires sous-jacents à la sensibilité extrême du mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ aux agents qui endommagent l'ADN. Nous avons établi qu'en raison de la présence anormale d'H3K56ac devant les fourches de réplication, le mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ exhibe une forte perte de viabilité lorsqu'exposé au méthyl méthanesulfonate (MMS) durant un seul passage à travers la phase S. Nous avons aussi découvert que, malgré le fait que le point de contrôle de réponse aux dommages à l'ADN est activé normalement dans le mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ, ce mutant est incapable de compléter la réplication de l'ADN et d'inactiver le point de contrôle pour une longue période de temps après exposition transitoire au MMS. L'ensemble de nos résultats suggère que les lésions à l'ADN induites par le MMS dans le mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ causent une forte perte de viabilité parce que ce mutant est incapable de compléter la réplication de l'ADN après une exposition transitoire au MMS. Dans la deuxième section du chapitre 3, nous avons employé une approche génétique afin d'identifier de nouveaux mécanismes de suppression de deux phénotypes prononcés du mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ. Nous avons découvert que la délétion de plusieurs gènes impliqués dans la formation de frontières entre l'hétérochromatine et de l'euchromatine atténue les phénotypes du mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ sans réduire l'hyperacétylation d'H3K56. Nos résultats indiquent aussi que l'abondante acétylation de l'histone H4 sur la lysine 16 (H4K16ac) est néfaste au mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ. Ce résultat suggère un lien génétique intriguant entre l'acétylation d'H3K56 et celle d'H4K16. L'existence de ce lien était jusqu'à présent inconnu. Nous avons identifié un groupe de suppresseurs spontanés où H3K56ac est indétectable, mais la majorité de nos suppresseurs ne montrent aucune réduction flagrante d'H3K56ac ou d'H4 K16ac par rapport aux niveaux observés dans le mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ. Une étude plus approfondie de ce groupe de suppresseurs est susceptible de mener à la découverte de nouveaux mécanismes génétiques ou épigénétiques permettant d'éviter les conséquences catastrophiques de l'hyperacétylation d'H3K56 chez le mutant hst3Δ hst4Δ. En résumé, cette thèse identifie la machinerie moléculaire responsable de la dégradation d'Hst3 (une désacétylase d'H3K56) durant une fenêtre de temps situées entre la fin de la phase S et la métaphase. Nos résultats permettent aussi d'expliquer pourquoi la dégradation d'Hst3 précède le début de la phase S durant laquelle l'acétylation d'H3K56 s'accumule derrière les fourches de réplication afin d'exercer son rôle de mécanisme de défense contre le dommage à l'ADN. De plus, nous avons identifié plusieurs suppresseurs qui permettent de contourner le rôle important d'Hst3 et Hst4 en réponse au dommage à l'ADN. Plusieurs suppresseurs révèlent un lien génétique inattendu entre deux formes abondantes d'acétylation des histones chez Saccharomyces cerevisiae, soit H3K56ac et H4K16ac.

Enhanced photoconduction of free-standing ZnO nanowire films by L-lysine treatment

Flexible paper-like ZnO nanowire films are fabricated and the effect of L-lysine passivation of the nanowire surfaces on improving the UV photoresponse is studied. We prepare three types of nanowires with different defect contents, and find that the L-lysine treatment can suppress the oxygen-vacancy-related photoluminescence as well as enhance the UV photoconduction. The nanowires with fewer defects gain larger enhancement of UV photoconduction after L-lysine treatment. Reproducible UV photoresponse of the devices in humid air is obtained due to L-lysine surface passivation, ruling out the influence of water molecules in degrading the UV photocurrent.

Investigations Into the Significance of Lysine Residues in IGF-I

This PhD thesis presents novel and original research in the field of Insulin-like Growth Factor-I (or IGF-I) biology. IGF-I plays an essential role in promoting normal human growth and development; it also represents both a target and treatment for various diseases. This thesis provides interesting insights into previously uncharacterised mechanisms of action that underlie IGF-I biology. Such findings may lead to improved and novel treatments across a broad range of medical conditions.

Lysine residues of IGF-I are substrates for transglutaminases and modulate downstream IGF-I signalling

Numerous studies have reported associations between IGF-I and other extra cellular matrix (ECM) proteins, including fibronectin (FN), integrins, IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) and through IGFBPs, with vitronectin (VN). Nevertheless, the precise nature and mechanisms of these interactions are still being characterised. In this paper, we discuss transglutaminases (TGases) as a constituent of the ECM and provide evidence for the first time that IGF-I is a lysine (K)-donor substrate to TGases. When IGF-I was incubated with an alpha-2 plasmin inhibitor-derived Q peptide in the presence of tissue transglutaminase (TG2), an IGF-I:Q peptide cross-linked species was detected using Western immunoblotting and confirmed by mass spectrometry. Similar findings were observed in the presence of Factor XIIIa (FXIIIa) TGase. To identify the precise location of this K-donor TGase site/s on IGF-I, all the three IGF-I K-sites, individually and collectively (K27, K65 and K68), were substituted to arginine (R) using site-directed mutagenesis. Incubation of these K→R IGF-I analogues with Q peptide in the presence of TG2 or FXIIIa resulted in the absence of cross-linking in IGF-I analogues bearing arginine substitution at site 68. This established that K68 within the IGF-I D-domain was the principal K-donor site to TGases. We further annotated the functional significance of these K→R IGF-I analogues on IGF-I mediated actions. IGF-I analogues with K→R substitution within the D-domain at K65 and K68 hindered migration of MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells and correspondingly reduced PI3-K/AKT activation. Therefore, this study also provides first insights into a possible functional role of the previously uncharacterised IGF-I D-domain.

PEGylation of lysine residues reduces the pro-migratory activity of IGF-I

Background: The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system is composed of ligands and receptors which regulate cell proliferation, survival, differentiation and migration. Some functions are regulated via intracellular signaling cascades, others by involvement of the extracellular milieu, including binding proteins and other extracellular matrix proteins. However, understanding of their functions and the exact nature of these interactions remains incomplete. Methods: IGF-I was PEGylated at its lysine sites - K27, K65 and K68. Binding of PEG-IGF-I to the IGFBPs was analyzed using BIAcore and its ability to activate the IGF-IR was assessed using IGF-IR phosphorylation assay. Furthermore, functional consequences of PEGylating the lysine residues of IGF-I was investigated using cell viability and cell migration assays. In addition, particular downstream signaling pathways regularly implicated in these mechanisms were also dissected using phospho-AKT and phospho-ERK1/2 assays. Results: In this study, IGF-I specifically PEGylated at lysine 27 (PEG-K27), 65 (PEG-K65) or 68 (PEG-K68) were employed. Receptor phosphorylation was only reduced by 2-fold with PEG-K65 and PEG-K68 over all the time points tested, and as observed in two cell types, 3T3 fibroblasts and MCF-7 breast cancer cells. PEGylation at K27 resulted in a much larger effect, with more than 10-fold lower activation for 3T3 fibroblasts and a ~3 fold reduced IGF-IR activation for MCF-7 breast cancer cells over 15 minutes. In addition, all PEG-IGF-I variants demonstrated a ten-fold reduction in the association rate to IGF binding proteins (IGFBPs). Functionally, all PEG variants completely lost their ability to induce cell migration in the presence of IGFBP-3/vitronectin (VN) complexes as compared to IGF-I; in contrast, cell viability was fully preserved. Further investigations into the downstream signaling pathways revealed that the PI3-K/AKT pathway was preferentially affected upon treatment with the PEG-IGF-I variants compared to the MAPK/ERK pathway. Conclusion: PEGylation of IGF-I has an impact on cell migration but not cell viability. General significance: PEG-IGF-I may differentially modulate IGF-I mediated functions that are dependent on its interaction with its receptor as well as key extracellular proteins such as VN and IGFBPs.

Targeting histone deacetylases for the treatment of immune, endocrine and metabolic disorders

The 'histone code' is a well-established hypothesis describing the idea that specific patterns of post-translational modifications to histones act like a molecular "code" recognised and used by non-histone proteins to regulate specific chromatin functions. One modification which has received significant attention is that of histone acetylation. The enzymes which regulate this modification are described as histone acetyltransferases or HATs, and histone deacetylases or HDACs. Due to their conserved catalytic domain HDACs have been actively targeted as a therapeutic target. The proinflammatory environment is increasingly being recognised as a critical element for both degenerative diseases and cancer. The present review will discuss the current knowledge surrounding the clinical potential & current development of histone deacetylases for the treatment of diseases for which a proinflammatory environment plays important roles, and the molecular mechanisms by which such inhibitors may play important functions in modulating the proinflammatory environment. © 2009 Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors target diabetes via chromatin remodeling or as chemical chaperones?

Globally, obesity and diabetes (particularly type 2 diabetes) represents a major challenge to world health. Despite decades of intense research efforts, the genetic basis involved in diabetes pathogenesis & conditions associated with obesity are still poorly understood. Recent advances have led to exciting new developments implicating epigenetics as an important mechanism underpinning diabetes and obesity related disease. One epigenetic mechanism known as the "histone code" describes the idea that specific patterns of post-translational modifications to histones act like a molecular "code" recognised and used by non-histone proteins to regulate specific chromatin functions. One modification which has received significant attention is that of histone acetylation. The enzymes which regulate this modification are described as lysine acetyltransferases or KATs and histone deacetylases or HDACs. Due to their conserved catalytic domain HDACs have been actively targeted as a therapeutic target. Some of the known inhibitors of HDACs (HDACi) have also been shown to act as "chemical chaperones" to alleviate diabetic symptoms. In this review, we discuss the available evidence concerning the roles of HDACs in regulating chaperone function and how this may have implications in the management of diabetes. © 2009 Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.