974 resultados para Lateral floral symmetry
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花两侧对称性的获得是由多次独立的进化事件而完成。在被子植物进化过程中,花两侧对称性在植物的适应辐射过程中有重要意义。在模式植物金鱼草中,CYCLOIDEA(CYC)是控制花对称性的关键基因。近年来,CYC 基因的同源基因已经在多个类群中被分离出来,并开展了CYC 类基因的分子进化及其与花对称性表型进化相关关系的研究。 泡桐属是模式植物金鱼草的一个近缘类群,我们从泡桐属的毛泡桐中分离出了CYC基因的两个同源基因,分别命名为PtCYC1 和PtCYC2 。组织特异性RT-PCR显示他们的表达模式发生了明显的分化。 毛泡桐中PtCYC1 基因的表达模式与 CYC 基因在金鱼草中和 McCYC 基因在M. confertiflora 中的表达模式存在明显的差异但是和RgCYC 在地黄(Rehmannia)中的表达模式十分相似。PtCYC1 基因在近轴区域的强烈表达可能与毛泡桐近轴雄蕊的缺失有关。 尽管PtCYC1和M. confertiflora 中的McCYC 基因均从近轴雄蕊延伸到了两侧雄蕊,但PtCYC1 基因的后期表达较弱。因此,毛泡桐中的两侧雄蕊的发育并没有像M. confertiflora 中的两侧雄蕊受到强烈的抑制而成为退化雄蕊,仅仅使得两侧雄蕊短于两个远轴雄蕊从而在毛泡桐中形成二强雄蕊。地黄属和泡桐属两侧对称花的显著特征是缺乏近轴雄蕊。PtCYC1 和RgCYC基因的表达模式的高度一致显示出近轴雄蕊的缺失可能和CYC类基因的强烈表达有关。十分有趣的是毛泡桐中PtCYC2 基因在各个区域均没有表达。对于PtCYC2 基因是否还有其他方面的功能还有待于进一步探讨。
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Background and Aims: Molecular phylogenies have suggested a new circumscription for Fabales to include Leguminosae, Quillajaceae, Surianaceae and Polygalaceae. However, recent attempts to reconstruct the interfamilial relationships of the order have resulted in several alternative hypotheses, including a sister relationship between Quillajaceae and Surianaceae, the two species-poor families of Fabales. Here, floral morphology and ontogeny of these two families are investigated to explore evidence of a potential relationship between them. Floral traits are discussed with respect to early radiation in the order. Methods: Floral buds of representatives of Quillajaceae and Surianaceae were dissected and observed using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Key Results Quillajaceae and Surianaceae possess some common traits, such as inflorescence morphology and perianth initiation, but development and organization of their reproductive whorls differ. In Quillaja, initiation of the diplostemonous androecium is unidirectional, overlapping with the petal primordia. In contrast, Suriana is obdiplostemonous, and floral organ initiation is simultaneous. Independent initiation of five carpels is common to both Quillaja and Suriana, but subsequent development differs; the antesepalous carpels of Quillaja become fused proximally and exhibit two rows of ovules, and in Suriana the gynoecium is apocarpous, gynobasic, with antepetalous biovulate carpels. Conclusions: Differences in the reproductive development and organization of Quillajaceae and Surianaceae cast doubt on their potential sister relationship. Instead, Quillaja resembles Leguminosae in some floral traits, a hypothesis not suggested by molecular-based phylogenies. Despite implicit associations of zygomorphy with species-rich clades and actinomorphy with species-poor families in Fabales, this correlation sometimes fails due to high variation in floral symmetry. Studies considering specific derived clades and reproductive biology could address more precise hypotheses of key innovation and differential diversification in the order.
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Mathematical models, as instruments for understanding the workings of nature, are a traditional tool of physics, but they also play an ever increasing role in biology - in the description of fundamental processes as well as that of complex systems. In this review, the authors discuss two examples of the application of group theoretical methods, which constitute the mathematical discipline for a quantitative description of the idea of symmetry, to genetics. The first one appears, in the form of a pseudo-orthogonal (Lorentz like) symmetry, in the stochastic modelling of what may be regarded as the simplest possible example of a genetic network and, hopefully, a building block for more complicated ones: a single self-interacting or externally regulated gene with only two possible states: ` on` and ` off`. The second is the algebraic approach to the evolution of the genetic code, according to which the current code results from a dynamical symmetry breaking process, starting out from an initial state of complete symmetry and ending in the presently observed final state of low symmetry. In both cases, symmetry plays a decisive role: in the first, it is a characteristic feature of the dynamics of the gene switch and its decay to equilibrium, whereas in the second, it provides the guidelines for the evolution of the coding rules.
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在模式植物金鱼草中的花对称性分子发育与遗传学研究揭示出相关调控基因在花对称性形成过程中的功能和表达式样及其相互作用机制,但被子植物中花对称性的繁杂多样远非模式植物的表达模式所能概括。因此,我们选择车前科和苦苣苔科中与金鱼草较近缘的典型类群地黄属和非洲紫罗兰属作为研究对象,针对它们在花对称性形成方面区别于金鱼草的不同式样,开展这些类群中花对称性主控基因CYCLOIDEA(CYC)类基因的进化发育生物学研究。该研究旨在探讨CYC 类基因的功能和表达式样的变化在进化上的内在联系。 地黄花对称性基因的进化发育研究结果显示,地黄中CYC 类基因RgCYC 的表达模式与CYC 基因在金鱼草中和McCYC 基因在Mohavea 中的表达模式存在明显的差异。首先, RgCYC 基因在近轴雄蕊预期发生位置表皮细胞下的强烈表达与地黄近轴雄蕊的缺失密切相关。转录因子中的氨基酸替代所导致蛋白质功能的改变使RgCYC 基因对细胞周期基因cyclin D3b 抑制作用的增强可能是地黄中近轴雄蕊原基发生过程被彻底阻断的主要原因。由此看来,CYC 类基因的作用不仅导致近轴花器官生长缓慢或退化,而且可能与自然类群中花近轴器官丢失的现象有关。其次,同McCYC 基因在Mohavea 中的表达模式相似,RgCYC 基因的表达也从近轴雄蕊延伸到了两侧雄蕊,但是并没有强烈地抑制两侧雄蕊的发育,仅仅使得两侧雄蕊短于远轴雄蕊从而在地黄中形成二强雄蕊。这一现象可能是由于RgCYC 基因的表达与McCYC 基因的表达在时间和空间上的差异所造成的,并显示地黄中二强雄蕊的形成机制和金鱼草完全不同。第三,RgCYC 基因在近轴花冠裂片的表达没有象CYC 在金鱼草中一样明显促进它们的生长。此外,近轴花冠裂片明显的自身对称性显示在地黄中RgCYC 基因在两侧对称性形成方面可能单独对近轴花器官进行调控。地黄中RgCYC 基因的表达模式反映了广义唇形目中从五数花到四数花进化过程的一种新的进化机制。 两侧对称花向次生辐射对称花的反演进化机制在花对称性进化发育研究中倍受关注。我们在苦苣苔科中选择非洲紫罗兰栽培品种作为研究材料,通过 mTAIL-PCR 分别在两侧对称花和辐射对称花的栽培品种中分离出了包含完整的 ORF 的CYC 类基因:SiCYC1A 和SiCYC1B。这两个基因的完整序列在DNA 水平的相似性为88%,均包含了完整的TCP domain, R domain 和 5’ 端区段。令人意外的是SiCYC1A 和SiCYC1B 这两个基因的DNA 序列在两侧和辐射对称花品种中均完全一致。根据对导致辐射对称花产生机制的比较分析,我们认为在这两个栽培品种中的SiCYC1A 和 SiCYC1B 基因可能存在着某一共同的调节因子对其进行调控。其可能途径是该调节因子同时调控SiCYC1A 和 SiCYC1B 基因,这一共同的调节因子的改变导致了SiCYC1A 和 SiCYC1B 基因部分或完全失去功能,从而使两侧对称花转变为辐射对称花。 崖白菜属的花部器官发生研究显示其花萼和花冠裂片的发生顺序与毛地黄族和婆婆纳族相似,花冠裂片早期生长的迟滞和花冠裂片折叠式样介于毛地黄族和婆婆纳族之间。但是,近轴雄蕊的发育缺失完全不同于毛地黄族中的其它类群。对地黄属和崖白菜属以及它们近缘类群的ITS 或trnL-F 序列所构建的系统树的分析显示,地黄属和崖白菜属呈姊妹群。然而,分子系统学研究结果并不支持传统系统学和个体发育研究对这两个属科级系统位置的认识。毛地黄属与婆婆纳属和车前属构成一个单系分支,而地黄属与崖白菜属则形成另外一个独立的分支,并与泡桐属与透骨草科所形成的分支首先聚在一支。因此,毛地黄族可能并不是一个单系类群,地黄属和崖白菜属的科级系统位置可能需要重新考虑。
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模式植物金鱼草的花对称性分子发育及遗传学研究揭示了花对称性的相关调控基因在花发育过程种的表达模式和功能以及它们的相互作用机制。然而,被子植物的花对称性丰富多样,远非模式植物的模式所能概括。根据目前的研究我们选择苦苣苔科马铃苣苔属作为研究对象,选取其中具有代表性的种大叶石上莲开展控制花对称性的几个关键基因的进化发育生物学研究,初步探讨这些基因的表达模式和功能以及它们与花对称性进化的联系。 RT-PCR实验结果显示,在大叶石上莲中花对称性基因ObCYC, ObRAD, ObDIV与它们的同源基因CYC, RAD, DIV在金鱼草中的表达模式有着明显的差异,这也意味着这些基因的功能及相互作用也有所不同。首先,大叶石上莲的ObCYC1C基因的表达与金鱼草的CYC基因相似,结合花形态比较认为ObCYC1C基因在花器官近轴区域的表达抑制了背部花器官的发育,在构建大叶石上莲微弱的两侧对称花过程中起到了主导的作用; 其它的几个ObCYC基因有着完全不同于CYC的表达模式,ObCYC1D的表达延伸到了花腹部区域而ObCYC2A在花发育中期和晚期没有表达,这意味着它们可能具有除控制花对称性之外的功能; 另一个特殊的现象是ObCYC2B因为在可读框架中一个终止子的提前出现而失去了功能。其次,ObRAD, ObDIV的表达与RAD, DIV的表达差异也极为明显,通过系统树和氨基酸序列比对分析发现ObRAD, ObDIV与RAD, DIV的保守功能区序列存在明显的不同,而ObRAD, ObDIV与BlRAD, BlDIV的保守区很相似,这与它们的花对称性以及基因的表达模式相对映,同时也说明了保守功能区具有极重要的作用。本研究显示了大叶石上莲中的花对称性基因的表达模式和功能与模式植物金鱼草存在显著的差异,在此基础上开展更深入的进化发育生物学研究将有助于揭示花对称性基因的分子进化及其与花对称性表型进化的关系。
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被子植物中,花对称性进化的一个重要方面就是从两侧对称向次生辐射对称的演化。唇形目是被子植物中以两侧对称花为主的类群,次生辐射对称花频繁发生。然而在分子发育水平上,除了模式植物金鱼草(Antirrhinum majus)和少数其他种外,从两侧对称花向次生辐射对称花演化的机制仍然是一个巨大的未被探索的领域。 在金鱼草和柳川鱼(Linaria vulgaris)中,腹部化反常整齐花的形成各自是由于CYC和LCYC的沉默所引起,这些基因沉默分别是由于转座子插入和DNA广泛甲基化所导致。在豆科(legumes)中,辐射对称花的形成是由于legCYC基因在所有五个花瓣均有表达,这相似于金鱼草中CYC基因同源异位表达所形成的背部化辐射对称花。然而,自然界中起源于不同的两侧对称花支系的许多次生辐射对称花好像并不是因为简单的花对称性基因功能丢失或者获得。因此,以模式植物突变体表型特征的分子机制作为研究出发点,通过对自然发生的次生辐射对称花进行详细研究探讨,有可能揭示两侧对称花向次生辐射对称花转变的新的演化途径,包括花对称性发育过程中不同基因的参与以及他们的表达在时间上的变化等。 苦苣苔科(Gesneriaceae)是唇形目(Lamiales sensu lato)其他类群的姊妹群, 以较弱的两侧对称花为特征,并拥有相当数量的次生辐射对称花种类;该科所拥有的辐射对称花属在唇形目所有科中占的比例最大。在苦苣苔科中,五数苣苔(Bournea leiophylla)是次生辐射对称花类群中具有两侧对称痕迹的代表类群,其花的发育过程显示出五数苣苔花经历了由花器官发育早期的两侧对称向成熟时期辐射对称的形态转变。这种发育模式暗示着五数苣苔的花可能起源于一个两侧对称花祖先;五数苣苔中控制花背腹非对称性的CYC类基因应该是有功能的,至少在花发育的早期是这样的。由于苦苣苔科和婆婆纳科(Veronicaceae)(金鱼草属于婆婆纳科)亲缘关系较近,而且CYC类基因的基本功能之一是导致背部雄蕊退化;因此五数苣苔中辐射对称花的形成很可能既不是由于CYC类基因失去,也不是因为CYC-类基因功能获得延伸或加强所致。在五数苣苔花发育过程中,从早期的两侧对称到成熟花的辐射对称的发育转变可能牵涉到TCP和MYB基因家族成员相互调节作用在时间和空间上的改变。因此,五数苣苔是探讨被子植物中次生辐射对称花新的进化途径的一个理想的候选材料。针对解决这一问题,我们对五数苣苔花进行了以下实验研究: 1 花器官发生过程的观察 成熟的五数苣苔花是辐射对称花,但是对花发育过程中花原基电镜扫描结果表明:在花器官起始和发育的早期,五数苣苔花是显著的两侧对称;但是随着进一步发育,这种两侧对称性逐步减弱,最后形成具有微弱两侧对称性痕迹的辐射对称花。 2 花对称性基因的克隆 我们应用RACE技术克隆得到了五数苣苔花对称性同源基因:BlDIV1、BlDIV2和BlRAD的翻译区全序列及其上下游非翻译区,得到了BlCYC1的3‘端翻译区和非翻译区序列。为了确定这些基因内含子的有无和位置,我们也从DNA中得到了相应同源基因的DNA序列,并且补全了BlCYC1的5‘端序列。同时也克隆到了一个没有在mRNA中得到的CYC同源基因BlCYC2。在该实验中我们第一次在金鱼草以外的类群中克隆得到了DIV和RAD的同源基因。 3 序列比较和分子系统发育分析 运用不同的比较软件和分子系统发育分析工具对五数苣苔的花对称性基因进行了比较和分析。结果表明:五数苣苔各种类型的花对称性基因和金鱼草的花对称基因在序列上是高度同源的,在分子系统发育上是非常近缘的。暗示着五数苣苔花对称性基因和金鱼草花对称性基因功能上的同源性。 4 花对称称性基因表达模式的分析 我们第一次运用组织原位杂交和RT-PCR技术对在金鱼草以外类群中所有已知类型花对称性同源基因的表达模式进行了实验研究。结果表明:五数苣苔花对称性基因的表达模式在花发育的早期类似于金鱼草;但是早期以后,BlCYC1和BlRAD被负调节,BlDIV的表达特异地在每个花瓣侧部边缘表达;这种表达结果和花的形态发生过程有很好的吻合。 上述研究表明:和金鱼草花对称基因的表达模式相比,五数苣苔三种类型花对称性基因在花发育过程中的时间和空间表达模式发生了改变;并且这种表达模式变化和五数苣苔花对称性由发育起始时期的两侧对称向成熟时期的辐射对称的转变是相互关联的。五数苣苔具有两侧对称性痕迹的辐射对称花和其他类群辐射对称花的比较显示:在五数苣苔中发育早期的两侧对称性应该是两侧对称性的遗迹;这是由于BlCYC1和BlRAD基因早期表达的保守性造成的。我们的结果揭示了一个新的花对称性演化路径:在花发育过程中,被CYC-like基因推动的RAD和DIV同源基因之间相互调节作用在时间和空间上的变化是花对称性从两侧对称向辐射对称转变或演化的基础;我们的发现还预示着:在一个调节网络的动态变化过程中,一个预先存在的两侧对称发育程序的修饰调节可能在被子植物次生辐射对称花多样性的形成中扮演重要角色。
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花对称性,作为花器官的一个基本而又非常重要的特征,它的进化发育过程,越来越吸引着科学家们的注意力。次生辐射对称花的形成也越来越受到关注。然而在分子发育水平上,除了模式植物金鱼草(Antirrhinum majus)和少数其他种外,次生辐射对称花演化的机制仍然是一个巨大的未被探索的领域。 在金鱼草和柳穿鱼(Linaria vulgaris)中,腹部化反常整齐花的形成各自是由CYC和LCYC基因沉默所致,二者基因沉默分别是由于转座子的插入和DNA广泛甲基化所导致;而在豆科(legumes)中,辐射对称花的形成是由于legCYC基因在五个花瓣上都有表达,这种情况和金鱼草中CYC基因同源异位表达所形成的背部化辐射对称花相似。然而,自然起源的两侧对称花支系中的次生辐射对称花的形成似乎并不是简单的花对称性基因功能丢失或获得。自然形成的次生辐射对称花究竟可能经历了怎样的进化途径?对此,我们选择了广义唇形目(Lamiales sensu lato)中苦苣苔科(Gesneriaceae)植物——四数苣苔(Bouenea sinensis)作为研究对象,通过和模式植物金鱼草的突变体中花对称性基因表达特征比较,结合其近缘种——五数苣苔(Bournea leiophylla)中DIVARICATA在时间和空间上的表达特征,试图揭示苦苣苔科中可能的两侧对称向次生辐射对称花转变的新的演化途径,以及在这种进化过程中所产生的可能的器官丢失或融合现象。 四数苣苔和五数苣苔同属于苦苣苔亚科(Cyrtandroideae)苦苣苔族(Trib.Ramondeae Eritsch)中的四数苣苔属(Bournea Oliv)。该属仅仅有两个种——四数苣苔和五数苣苔,它们都是次生辐射对称花类群中的典型代表,而且两者花发育过程都显示出了由腹部向背部顺序发生和生长的特征。然而和五数苣苔相比,四数苣苔花瓣和雄蕊数目分别少了一枚,拥有四枚花瓣(背部花瓣两枚、两侧花瓣两枚)和四枚雄蕊(背部雄蕊一枚、两侧雄蕊两枚、腹部雄蕊一枚)。从形态特征比较来看,很有可能是四数苣苔在次生辐射对称花形成的过程中,发生了腹部花瓣的丢失和两枚腹部雄蕊愈合成了一枚较大的腹部雄蕊。那么,我们推测在四数苣苔次生辐射对称花形成过程中,花对称性基因即CYC类和DIV类基因在分子水平上发生了变化,这种变化和四数苣苔中次生辐射对称花的形成有关。 基于上述考虑,我们开展了对四数苣苔中花对称性基因——BsCYCLOIDEA、BsDIVARICATA、BsRADALIS以及BsCYCLIND3四个基因共9个拷贝进行了在花组织中表达模式研究。我们在四数苣苔中共分离到了五个拷贝的CYC类基因,分别命名为BsCYC1C-1、BsCYC1C-2、BsCYC1D、BsCYC2A、BsCYC2B。这五个拷贝在保守的TCP区和R区保持了高度的同源性。BsDIV的两个拷贝BsDIV1、BsDIV2也是如此,在保守的两个区domain I、domain II,尤其是在那些螺旋和环结构处,保守性相当高。组织原位杂交结果显示,BsDIV在四数苣苔中的表达非常特别,在金鱼草和五数苣苔中该类基因的表达分两个不同时期,即早期表达和晚期特异性表达,BsDIV在四数苣苔中似乎没有早期表达模式或者在很早期就已经进入到了晚期的表达模式。它在四个花瓣的两侧边缘和四个雄蕊上均等表达,而且这种表达持续时间相对比较长。组织原位杂交结果也得到了RT-PCR结果的支持。有趣的是BsRAD的RT-PCR结果显示,BsRAD在晚期花瓣上只在背部表达,但是在雄蕊上的表达却和金鱼草中AmRAD在背部区域表达不同,它的表达从背部延伸到了两侧和腹部。BsRAD在花器官的第二轮和第三轮的表达显然发生了分化。这种现象可能暗示着BsRAD功能发生了分化。BsRAD和BsDIV在腹部雄蕊上精细的时间空间调控关系可能正是导致腹部雄蕊愈合的原因。RT-PCR结果并没有检测到BsCYC2在晚期花上的表达。原位杂交结果显示BsCYC2在第8期以后表达就基本消失了,从而验证了RT-PCR结果。BsCYC2在早期花原基和早期花器官上都是均匀表达,但在表达消失之前,它在花瓣裂片和花冠筒的分界处则有表达信号,BsCYC2可能和调控花冠筒高度有关。根据Almeida 和 Galego(2002)所说,花冠筒高度的改变依赖于CYC 、DIV基因和其它非主动生长决定因子之间的相互作用。BsCYC1C晚期的RT-PCR结果显示它在背部花瓣、背部雄蕊和两侧雄蕊上均有表达信号,但在腹部花瓣和雄蕊上则没有表达信号,这似乎和四数苣苔由腹部向背部顺序发育的形态特征相符合,说明BsCYC1C可能起到了抑制背部花瓣和背部雄蕊生长的作用。
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被子植物菊亚纲原始类群的花为辐射对称花,伴随着适应性进化和传粉者的专性化,两侧对称花随之出现并快速进化和多样化。与花对称性相关的基因首先在模式植物金鱼草中被分离出来,它们包括TCP 基因家族的两个基因Cycloidea(CYC)和Dichotama(DICH),MYB 基因家族的两个基因Radialis(RAD)和Divaricata(DIV)。模式植物金鱼草的分子发育与遗传学研究初步揭示出在花对称性形成过程中相关调控基因的功能、表达模式及其相互作用机制。研究表明,金鱼草花中CYC 和DICH 基因只在背部表达,控制背部属性。DIV基因早期在所有部位表达,但只影响腹部属性。CYC 和DICH 通过激活与DIV具有颉抗作用的RAD 基因在背部的表达来抑制DIV 基因在背部的作用从而构建了金鱼草的两侧对称花。但是,被子植物繁杂多样的花对称性远非一种模式植物所能概括。此外,被子植物花对称性的演化也是一个悬而未决的问题。要全面了解被子植物花对称性的起源、多样化及其背后的决定机制,有必要进一步研究不同类群中花对称性相关基因的功能变化和进化式样。 苦苣苔科(Gesneriaceae)与金鱼草所属的车前科(Plantaginaceae)同属于菊亚纲的广义唇形目。研究表明广义唇形目的祖先已经具有了两侧对称花,苦苣苔科是广义唇形目的基部类群,具有与唇形目两侧对称花早期分化相关的各种两侧对称花类型。因此,在苦苣苔科选择两侧对称花代表类群开展花对称性的进化发育生物学研究十分有助于探讨苦苣苔科花对称性基因在两侧对称花类群的调控进化,从而揭示广义唇形目基部类群花对称性的进化发育模式。我们选择苦苣苔科两侧对称花类群烟叶唇柱苣苔(Chirita heterotricha)为主要研究材料。烟叶唇柱苣苔是苦苣苔科两侧对称性比较强烈的类群,主要体现在其只有腹部两枚雄蕊能育,背部和侧部雄蕊均败育,与金鱼草的近亲沙漠幽灵花(Mohaveae confertiflora)的形态类似。在沙漠幽灵花中CYC 类基因的表达从背部延伸到了侧部,但是在烟叶唇柱苣苔中是否遵循同一模式还是存在其他途径这是我们的主要研究目的。此外,我们发现在烟叶唇柱苣苔花序的顶花中偶尔会发生腹部化的辐射对称突变花。在金鱼草和柳穿鱼中,CYC 类基因的失活导致了辐射对称突变花的产生,而在豆科植物Cadia purpurea 中,CYC 类基因的活性从背部延伸到了侧部和腹部,导致了辐射对称花的形成。烟叶唇柱苣苔中的情形则值得我们关注。再者,革叶粗筒苣苔(Briggisia mihieri)是烟叶唇柱苣苔的近缘类群,但它具有四枚能育雄蕊(侧部和腹部各两枚)。苦苣苔科两能育雄蕊类群被认为起源于四能育雄蕊类群。我们在烟叶唇柱苣苔野生型两侧对称花和辐射对称突变花中开展花对称性基因的表达模式研究,结合在革叶粗筒苣苔中的研究,试图揭示烟叶唇柱苣苔两雄蕊类两侧对称花形成的分子机制和进化发育途径。 本研究从烟叶唇柱苣苔中分离到4 个CYC 类基因(ChCYC1C,ChCYC1D,ChCYC2A,ChCYC2B),2 个DIV 类基因(ChDIV1,ChDIV2)和2 个RAD 类基因(ChRAD1,ChRAD2)。从革叶粗筒苣苔中分离到4 个CYC 类基因(BmCYC1C,BmCYC1D,BmCYC2A,BmCYC2B),2 个DIV 类基因(BmDIV1,BmDIV2)和1 个RAD 类基因(BmRAD1)。序列和系统发育分析结果显示它们均为花对称性基因。进一步的表达分析显示结果表明:(1)不同拷贝CYC 类基因的表达存在着分化,与其氨基酸序列的分化一致;烟叶唇柱苣苔的CYC 类基因表达从背部延伸到了侧部而革叶粗筒苣苔的CYC 类基因仅在背部表达,与它们的形态分化密切相关。(2)DIV 类基因在种内两个拷贝以及种间的表达无明显的分化,在花的各个部位都有表达。(3)烟叶唇柱苣苔两个拷贝的RAD 类基因的表达存在分化;两个种的同类RAD 类基因的表达也存在分化。这些花对称性基因的表达模式分析揭示了它们在烟叶唇柱苣苔和革叶粗筒苣苔两侧对称花形态建成以及二者花形态的演化中具有重要作用。 同时,我们对烟叶唇柱苣苔的辐射对称突变花进行了自交和F1 代培育,但是F1 代没有出现稳定的辐射对称突变株。我们从辐射对称突变花中分离到的CYC 类、DIV 类和RAD 类基因的核苷酸序列与野生型的完全一致。说明突变体的产生与序列变异无关。RT-PCR 分析表明突变花中CYC 类基因全部失活,而DIV 类基因和在腹部表达的RAD 类基因的表达信号有所增强,这与其腹部化辐射对称的形态相一致。这进一步证实了花对称性基因在烟叶唇柱苣苔花形态建成中的作用。
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The reconstruction of Extensive Air Showers (EAS) observed by particle detectors at the ground is based on the characteristics of observables like the lateral particle density and the arrival times. The lateral densities, inferred for different EAS components from detector data, are usually parameterised by applying various lateral distribution functions (LDFs). The LDFs are used in turn for evaluating quantities like the total number of particles or the density at particular radial distances. Typical expressions for LDFs anticipate azimuthal symmetry of the density around the shower axis. The deviations of the lateral particle density from this assumption arising from various reasons are smoothed out in the case of compact arrays like KASCADE, but not in the case of arrays like Grande, which only sample a smaller part of the azimuthal variation. KASCADE-Grande, an extension of the former KASCADE experiment, is a multi-component Extensive Air Shower (EAS) experiment located at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (Campus North), Germany. The lateral distributions of charged particles are deduced from the basic information provided by the Grande scintillators - the energy deposits - first in the observation plane, then in the intrinsic shower plane. In all steps azimuthal dependences should be taken into account. As the energy deposit in the scintillators is dependent on the angles of incidence of the particles, azimuthal dependences are already involved in the first step: the conversion from the energy deposits to the charged particle density. This is done by using the Lateral Energy Correction Function (LECF) that evaluates the mean energy deposited by a charged particle taking into account the contribution of other particles (e.g. photons) to the energy deposit. By using a very fast procedure for the evaluation of the energy deposited by various particles we prepared realistic LECFs depending on the angle of incidence of the shower and on the radial and azimuthal coordinates of the location of the detector. Mapping the lateral density from the observation plane onto the intrinsic shower plane does not remove the azimuthal dependences arising from geometric and attenuation effects, in particular for inclined showers. Realistic procedures for applying correction factors are developed. Specific examples of the bias due to neglecting the azimuthal asymmetries in the conversion from the energy deposit in the Grande detectors to the lateral density of charged particles in the intrinsic shower plane are given. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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Symmetry is a fundamental property found in both the physical and natural worlds. Bilateral symmetry is also present in the organization of the brain, however the degree to which symmetry is also an organizing principal between and within the key constituent elements of the nervous system, neurons, is not known. We compared and contrasted the structural organization of principal neurons (PN) in the three subnuclei of the lateral amygdala (LA) of the rat and for comparison also from the infralimbic cortex (IL)...
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A novel method for measuring the coma of a lithographic projection system is proposed and the principle of the method is described. By utilizing mirror-symmetry marks, the adverse effects of axial aberrations on the coma measurement are avoided. Experimental results demonstrated that the method has high accuracy. Compared with TAMIS, the conventional technique used for coma measurement, the method is more reliable because the influences of the process factors on the lateral displacements have been considered. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Keeled flowers are characteristic of many species of Polygalaceae (tribe Polygaleae), in which there is often a distinctive crest located at the abaxial petal. This study of floral ontogeny across the entire family highlights potential suites of characters that relate to the evolution of keeled and crested flowers. One character suite encompasses interconnected transformations of the lateral perianth organs acting as an evolutionary module: bracteoles, lateral sepals (with delayed initiation and petaloid appearance), and lateral petals (suppressed or lost). The plastochron between initiation of the lateral sepals and that of the other sepals is relatively long in the tribe Polygaleae, in which the calyx is usually heteromorphic. By contrast, in the petal whorl, the difference between a zygomorphic and an actinomorphic corolla involves organ suppression rather than heterochrony. Four primary androecial patterns are identified in the family, and the gynoecium ranges between syncarpous‐bicarpellate and multicarpellate. Stigma diversity is based on two primary morphological types: one in which the papillate stigmatic surfaces lie close together, the other in which they are physically separated. The floral ontogeny of Polygalaceae is considered alongside comparative data available for other members of the order Fabales, and hypotheses to account for the similarities and differences between keeled flowers are discussed.
Resumo:
The slow advective-timescale dynamics of the atmosphere and oceans is referred to as balanced dynamics. An extensive body of theory for disturbances to basic flows exists for the quasi-geostrophic (QG) model of balanced dynamics, based on wave-activity invariants and nonlinear stability theorems associated with exact symmetry-based conservation laws. In attempting to extend this theory to the semi-geostrophic (SG) model of balanced dynamics, Kushner & Shepherd discovered lateral boundary contributions to the SG wave-activity invariants which are not present in the QG theory, and which affect the stability theorems. However, because of technical difficulties associated with the SG model, the analysis of Kushner & Shepherd was not fully nonlinear. This paper examines the issue of lateral boundary contributions to wave-activity invariants for balanced dynamics in the context of Salmon's nearly geostrophic model of rotating shallow-water flow. Salmon's model has certain similarities with the SG model, but also has important differences that allow the present analysis to be carried to finite amplitude. In the process, the way in which constraints produce boundary contributions to wave-activity invariants, and additional conditions in the associated stability theorems, is clarified. It is shown that Salmon's model possesses two kinds of stability theorems: an analogue of Ripa's small-amplitude stability theorem for shallow-water flow, and a finite-amplitude analogue of Kushner & Shepherd's SG stability theorem in which the ‘subsonic’ condition of Ripa's theorem is replaced by a condition that the flow be cyclonic along lateral boundaries. As with the SG theorem, this last condition has a simple physical interpretation involving the coastal Kelvin waves that exist in both models. Salmon's model has recently emerged as an important prototype for constrained Hamiltonian balanced models. The extent to which the present analysis applies to this general class of models is discussed.
Resumo:
The family Malpighiaceae is considered monophyletic, but the intra-family classification is conflicting. Analyses of floral vasculature allow the identification of reductions, connations and adnations and can even reveal evolutionary steps prior to current floral morphology. The present work analysed the floral vasculature of Janusia mediterranea, Mascagnia cordifolia and Tetrapterys chamaecerasifolia using material processed by traditional methods for light microscopy. A general pattern was observed of three bundle traces supplying each sepal and one trace per petal and stamen; Mascagnia is an exception, as its eglandular sepal has only a median trace but shares lateral traces with adjacent sepals. No dorsal traces are emitted to the carpels; however, three intercarpellary complexes are emitted that divide into six ventral bundles, supplying the ovule. Mascagnia demonstrates connation between the anterior and adjacent sepal glands; reductions of the anterior sepal glands were registered in Tetrapterys and Janusia. This work reveals two distinct processes for gland loss in non-related groups of the family that resulted in similar present appearances. Our evaluation of the number of calyx glands and the processes of glandular loss in species with less than ten glands improves our understanding of the evolution of calyx glands in Malpighiaceae. © 2013 Elsevier GmbH.