Simulated transition to agropastoralism in the Indus valley 7500-3000 BC

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was one of the first great civilizations in prehistory. This bronze age civilization flourished from the end of the fourth millennium BC. It disintegrated during the second millennium BC; despite much research effort, this decline is not well understood. Less research has been devoted to the emergence of the IVC, which shows continuous cultural precursors since at least the seventh millennium BC. To understand the decline, we believe it is necessary to investigate the rise of the IVC, i.e., the establishment of agriculture and livestock, dense populations and technological developments 7000-3000 BC. Although much archaeologically typed information is available, our capability to investigate the system is hindered by poorly resolved chronology, and by a lack of field work in the intermediate areas between the Indus valley and Mesopotamia. We thus employ a complementary numerical simulation to develop a consistent picture of technology, agropastoralism and population developments in the IVC domain. Results from this Global Land Use and technological Evolution Simulator show that there is (1) fair agreement between the simulated timing of the agricultural transition and radiocarbon dates from early agricultural sites, but the transition is simulated first in India then Pakistan; (2) an independent agropas- toralism developing on the Indian subcontinent; and (3) a positive relationship between archeological artifact richness and simulated population density which remains to be quantified.

Indus River Region, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, 1816 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Sindetic Hindoostan or the countries occupied by the Sinde or Indus and its branches, by John Cary. It was published by J. Cary June 1, 1816. Scale [ca. 1:7,000,000]. Covers the Indus River region including portions of Northwest India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Kashmir. The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to a modified 'Asia North Lambert Conformal Conic' projection with a central meridian of 72 degrees East. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, cities and other human settlements, roads, territorial boundaries, shoreline features, and more. Relief shown by hachures. This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection as part of the Open Collections Program at Harvard University project: Islamic Heritage Project. Maps selected for the project represent a range of regions, originators, ground condition dates, scales, and purposes. The Islamic Heritage Project consists of over 100,000 digitized pages from Harvard's collections of Islamic manuscripts and published materials. Supported by Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal and developed in association with the Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Islamic Studies Program at Harvard University.

On the Origin of Cattle: How Aurochs Became Cattle and Colonized the World

Since their domestication in the Neolithic, cattle have belonged to our cultural heritage. The reconstruction of their history is an active field of research 1 that contributes to our understanding of human history. Archeological data are now supplemented by analyses of modern and ancient samples of cattle with DNA markers of maternal, paternal, or autosomal inheritance. The most recent genetic data suggest that maternal lineages of taurine cattle originated in the Fertile Crescent with a possible contribution of South-European wild cattle populations, while zebu cattle originate from the Indus Valley. Subsequently, cattle accompanied human migrations, which led to the dispersal of domestic cattle of taurine, indicine, or mixed origin over Asia, Africa, Europe, and the New World. This has resulted in their adaptation to different environments and considerable variation in appearance and performance. More recently, rational management of breeding led to international movements of sires, which again changed the global patterns of genetic diversity.

Pollen and non-pollen palynomorph records of the Holocene part of the composite sediment core TMD from lake Tso Moriri (NW India) and of modern surface samples from the Tso Moriri region

The high-altitude lake Tso Moriri (32°55'46'' N, 78°19'24'' E; 4522 m a.s.l.) is situated at the margin of the ISM and westerly influences in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh. Human settlements are rare and domestic and wild animals are concentrating at the alpine meadows. A set of modern surface samples and fossil pollen from deep-water TMD core was evaluated with a focus on indicator types revealing human impact, grazing activities and lake system development during the last ca. 12 cal ka BP. Furthermore, the non-pollen palynomorph (NPP) record, comprising remains of limnic algae and invertebrates as well as fungal spores and charred plant tissue fragments, were examined in order to attest palaeolimnic phases and human impact, respectively. Changes in the early and middle Holocene limnic environment are mainly influenced by regional climatic conditions and glacier-fed meltwater flow in the catchment area. The NPP record indicates low lake productivity with high influx of freshwater between ca. 11.5 and 4.5 cal ka BP which is in agreement with the regional monsoon dynamics and published climate reconstructions. Geomorphologic observations suggest that during this period of enhanced precipitation the lake had a regular outflow and contributed large amounts of water to the Sutlej River, the lower reaches of which were integral part of the Indus Civilization area. The inferred minimum fresh water input and maximum lake productivity between ca. 4.5-1.8 cal ka BP coincides with the reconstruction of greatest aridity and glaciation in the Korzong valley resulting in significantly reduced or even ceased outflow. We suggest that lowered lake levels and river discharge on a larger regional scale may have caused irrigation problems and harvest losses in the Indus valley and lowlands occupied by sedentary agricultural communities. This scenario, in turn, supports the theory that, Mature Harappan urbanism (ca. 4.5-3.9 cal ka BP) emerged in order to facilitate storage, protection, administration, and redistribution of crop yields and secondly, the eventual collapse of the Harappan Culture (ca. 3.5-3 cal ka BP) was promoted by prolonged aridity. There is no clear evidence for human impact around Tso Moriri prior to ca. 3.7 cal ka BP, with a more distinct record since ca. 2.7 cal ka BP. This suggests that the sedimentary record from Tso Moriri primarily archives the regional climate history.

Fossil pollen record of composite sediment core TMD from Tso Moriri, analysis of modern surface pollen samples, mean annual precipitation reconstruction, and digitisation and recalibration of different discussed palaeoclimate proxy records

This paper presents a new fossil pollen record from Tso Moriri (32°54'N, 78°19'E, 4512 m a.s.l.) and seeks to reconstruct changes in mean annual precipitation (MAP) during the last 12,000 years. This high-alpine lake occupies an area of 140 km**2 in a glacial-tectonic valley in the northwestern Himalaya. The region has a cold climate, with a MAP <300 mm, and open vegetation. The hydrology is controlled by the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM), but winter westerly-associated precipitation also affects the regional water balance. Results indicate that precipitation levels varied significantly during the Holocene. After a rapid increase in MAP, a phase of maximum humidity was reached between ca. 11 to 9.6 cal ka BP, followed by a gradual decline in MAP. This trend parallels the reduction in the Northern Hemisphere summer insolation. Comparison of different palaeoclimate proxy records reveal evidence for a stronger Holocene decrease in precipitation in the northern versus the southern parts of the ISM domain. The long-term trend of ISM weakening is overlaid with several short periods of greater dryness, which are broadly synchronous with the North Atlantic cold spells, suggesting reduced amounts of westerly-associated winter precipitation. Compared to the mid and late Holocene, it appears that westerlies had a greater influence on the western parts of the ISM domain during the early Holocene. During this period, the westerly-associated summer precipitation belt was positioned at Mediterranean latitudes and amplified the ISM-derived precipitation. The Tso Moriri pollen record and moisture reconstructions also suggest that changes in climatic conditions affected the ancient Harappan Civilisation, which flourished in the greater Indus Valley from approximately 5.2 to 3 cal ka BP. The prolonged Holocene trend towards aridity, punctuated by an interval of increased dryness (between ca. 4.5 to 4.3 cal ka BP), may have pushed the Mature Harappan urban settlements (between ca. 4.5 to 3.9 cal ka BP) to develop more efficient agricultural practices to deal with the increasingly acute water shortages. The amplified aridity associated with North Atlantic cooling between ca. 4 to 3.6 and around 3.2 cal ka BP further hindered local agriculture, possibly causing the deurbanisation that occurred from ca. 3.9 cal ka BP and eventual collapse of the Harappan Civilisation between ca. 3.5 to 3 cal ka BP.

Phlebotomines (Diptera, Psychodidae) in the Speleological Province of the Ribeira Valley: 3. Serra district - area of hostels for tourists who visit the Parque Estadual do Alto Ribeira (PETAR), state of São Paulo, Brazil

Phlebotomines (Diptera, Psychodidae) in the Speleological Province of the Ribeira Valley: 3. Area of hostels for tourists who visit the Parque Estadual do Alto Ribeira (PETAR), state of São Paulo, Brazil. The study characterizes some ecological aspects of the phlebotomine fauna in an endemic area of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) situated in the Serra district, Iporanga municipality where the hostels for tourists visiting the PETAR are located. Captures were undertaken on a smallholding and a small farm situated near the hostels, monthly between January/2001 and December/2003 with automatic light traps (ALT) in pigsty, hen-house and veranda of a domicile at the two sites, and in peridomicile of the small farm also with black/white Shannon traps. With the ALT a total of 87,224 phlebotomines representing 19 species and also two hybrids of Nyssomyia intermedia (Lutz & Neiva) and Nyssomyia neivai (Pinto) and two anomalous specimens were captured. The standardized index species abundance was for Ny. intermedia = 1.0 and Ny. neivai = 0.935. The highest frequencies of the smallholding occurred in the pigsty, the Williams' mean/capture for Ny. intermedia being 63.7 specimens and for Ny. neivai 29.2, and on the small farm, in the hen-house, Ny. intermedia 402.6 and Ny. neivai 116.2. A total of 863 phlebotomines (Ny. intermedia: 75.4%; Ny. neivai: 24.3%) were captured with black/white Shannon traps; females of both species being predominant in the white trap. The high frequencies of Ny. intermedia and Ny. neivai, both implicated in CL transmission, indicate the areas presenting risk of the disease.

Phlebotomines (Diptera, Psychodidae) in the Speleological Province of the Ribeira Valley: 2. Parque Estadual do Alto Ribeira (PETAR), São Paulo State, Brazil

The Parque Estadual do Alto Ribeira (PETAR) with about 250 caves, in an Atlantic forest reserve, is an important ecotourist attraction in the Ribeira Valley, an endemic area of American cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL). With the purpose of investigating Leishmania vector species bothersome to humans the sandfly fauna was identified and some of its ecological aspects in the Santana nucleus, captures were undertaken monthly with automatic light traps in 11 ecotopes, including caves, forests, a camping site and domiciliary environments, and on black and white Shannon traps, from January/2001 to December/2002. A total of 2,449 sandflies representing 21 species were captured. The highest values of abundance obtained in the captures with automatic light traps were for Psathyromyia pascalei and Psychodopygus ayrozai. A total of 107 specimens representing 13 species were captured on black (12 species) and white (6 species) Shannon traps set simultaneously. Psychodopygus geniculatus females predominated on the black (43.75%), and Psathyromyia lanei and Ps. ayrozai equally (32.4%) on the white. Nyssomyia intermedia and Nyssomyia neivai, both implicated in the transmission of ACL in the Brazilian Southeastern region, were also captured. Ny. intermedia predominated in the open camping area. Low frequencies of phlebotomines were observed in the caves, where Evandromyia edwardsi predominated Lutzomyia longipalpis, the main vector of the American visceral leishmaniasis, was aslo present. This is its most southernly reported occurrence in the Atlantic forest.

Phlebotomines (Diptera, Psychodidae) in the Ribeira Valley Speleological Province - 1. Parque Estadual Intervales, state of São Paulo, Brazil

The identification of the sandfly fauna and investigation of some ecological aspects of its populations in areas frequented by tourists of the PEI, an Atlantic forest reserve with many caves, were the objective of this study. Captures were undertaken monthly from January 2001 to December 2002, with automatic light traps installed in 13 ecotopes, including caves, forests, domiciliary and peridomiciliary environments, and by aspiration in armadillo burrows. Additionally, although not at regular intervals, Shannon traps were installed in forests and anthropic environments, aspirations were made on cave walls, among roots and fallen leaves, and some insects were captured while biting researchers. A total of 891 sandflies belonging to 21 species were captured. Six hundred specimens representing 19 species were captured with light traps, 215 in anthropic (2.24 insects/trap) and 385 in extra-domiciliary (1.46 insects/trap) environments. Brumptomyia troglodytes was the most abundant species (the Standardised Index of Species Abundance = 0.705). Pintomyia monticola predominated in the Shannon traps and showed anthropophilic and diurnal activity. Psathyromyia pascalei predominated in the aspirations; the largest number being in armadillo burrows. Eleven species were captured in caves; although some might be troglophiles, the majority used these ecotopes as resting places. Nyssomyia intermedia, Nyssomyia neivai and Migonemyia migonei, implicated in the transmission of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Southeastern Brazilian region, were all found, though in such low densities as to suggest minimal risk of the disease in the PEI.

Dispersal and survival of Nyssomyia intermedia and Nyssomyia neivai (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) in a cutaneous leishmaniasis endemic area of the speleological province of the Ribeira Valley, state of São Paulo, Brazil

The dispersal and survival of the phlebotomines Nyssomyia intermedia and Nyssomyia neivai (both implicated as vectors of the cutaneous leishmaniasis agent) in an endemic area was investigated using a capture-mark-release technique in five experiments from August-December 2003 in municipality of Iporanga, state of São Paulo, Brazil. A total of 1,749 males and 1,262 females of Ny. intermedia and 915 males and 411 females of Ny. neivai were marked and released during the five experiments. Recapture attempts were made using automatic light traps, aspiration in natural resting places and domestic animal shelters and Shannon traps. A total of 153 specimens (3.48%) were recaptured: 2.59% (78/3,011) for Ny. intermedia and 5.35% (71/1,326) for Ny. neivai. Both species were recaptured up to 144 h post-release, with the larger part of them recaptured within 48 h. The median dispersion distances for Ny. intermedia and Ny. neivai, respectively, were 109 m and 100 m. The greatest dispersal range of Ny. intermedia was 180 m, while for Ny. neivai one female was recaptured in a pasture at 250 m and another in a pigsty at 520 m, showing a tendency to disperse to more open areas. The daily survival rates calculated based on regressions of the numbers of marked insects recaptured on the six successive days after release were 0.746 for males and 0.575 for females of Ny. intermedia and 0.649 for both sexes of Ny. neivai. The size of the populations in the five months ranged from 8,332-725,085 for Ny. intermedia males, 2,193-104,490 for Ny. intermedia females, 1,687-350,122 for Ny. neivai males and 254-49,705 for Ny. neivai females.

Stratigraphy of near-valley head quaternary deposits and evidence of climate-driven slope-channel processes in southern Brazilian highlands

During the past 40 years colluvial and alluvial deposits have been used in Brazil as good indicators of regional landscape sensitivity to Quaternary environmental changes. In spite of the low resolution of most of the continental sedimentary record, geomorphology and sedimentology may favor palaeoenvironmental interpretation when supported by independent proxy data. This paper presents results obtained from pedostratigraphic sequences, in near-valley head sites of southern Brazilian highlands, based on geomorphologic. sedimentologic, micromorphologic, isotopic and palynologic data. Results point to environmental changes, with ages that coincide with Marine Isotopic Stages (MIS) 5b; 3; 2 and 1. During the late Pleistocene, although under temperatures and precipitation lower than today, the local record points to relatively wet local environments, where shallow soil-water saturated zones contributed to erosion and sedimentation during periods of climatic change, as during the transition between MIS 2 and MIS 1. Late Pleistocene events with ages that coincide with the Northern Hemisphere Younger Dryas are also depicted. During the mid Holocene, slope-wash deposits suggest a climate drier than today, probably under the influence of seasonally contrasted precipitation regimes. The predominance of overland flow-related sedimentary deposits suggests an excess of precipitation over evaporation that influenced local palaeohydrology. This environmental condition seems to be recurrent and explains how slope morphology had influenced pedogenesis and sedimentation in the study area. Due to relative sensitiveness, resilience and short source-to-sink sedimentary pathways, near-valley head sites deserve further attention in Quaternary studies in the humid tropics. (c) 2008 Elsevier B.A. All rights reserved.

Industrial apiculture in the Jordan valley during Biblical times with Anatolian honeybees

Although texts and wall paintings suggest that bees were kept in the Ancient Near East for the production of precious wax and honey, archaeological evidence for beekeeping has never been found. The Biblical term ""honey"" commonly was interpreted as the sweet product of fruits, such as dates and figs. The recent discovery of unfired clay cylinders similar to traditional hives still used in the Near East at the site of Tel Rehov in the Jordan valley in northern Israel suggests that a large-scale apiary was located inside the town, dating to the 10th-early 9th centuries B.C.E. This paper reports the discovery of remains of honeybee workers, drones, pupae, and larvae inside these hives. The exceptional preservation of these remains provides unequivocal identification of the clay cylinders as the most ancient beehives yet found. Morphometric analyses indicate that these bees differ from the local subspecies Apis mellifera syriaca and from all subspecies other than A. m. anatoliaca, which presently resides in parts of Turkey. This finding suggests either that the Western honeybee subspecies distribution has undergone rapid change during the last 3,000 years or that the ancient inhabitants of Tel Rehov imported bees superior to the local bees in terms of their milder temper and improved honey yield.

Geochronology of weathering and landscape evolution, Dugald River valley, NW Queensland, Australia

40Ar/39Ar laser incremental heating analyses of individual grains of supergene jarosite, alunite, and cryptomelane from weathering profiles in the Dugald River area, Queensland, Australia, show a strong positive correlation between a sample’s age and its elevation. We analyzed 125 grains extracted from 35 hand specimens collected from weathering profiles at 11 sites located at 3 distinct elevations. The highest elevation profile hosts the oldest supergene minerals, whereas progressively younger samples occur at lower positions in the landscape. The highest elevation sampling sites (three sites), located on top of an elongated mesa (255 to 275 m elevation), yield ages in the 16 to 12 Ma range. Samples from an intermediate elevation site (225 to 230 m elevation) yield ages in the 6 to 4 Ma range. Samples collected at the lowest elevation sites (200 to 220 m elevation) yield ages in the 2.2 to 0.8 Ma interval. Grains of supergene alunite, jarosite, and cryptomelane analyzed from individual single hand specimens yield reproducible results, confirming the suitability of these minerals to 40Ar/39Ar geochronology. Multiple samples collected from the same site also yield reproducible results, indicating that the ages measured are true precipitation ages for the samples analyzed. Different sites, up to 3 km apart, sampled from weathering profiles at the same elevation again yield reproducible results. The consistency of results confirms that 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of supergene jarosite, alunite, and cryptomelane yields ages of formation of weathering profiles, providing a reliable numerical basis for differentiating and correlating these profiles. The age versus elevation relationship obtained suggest that the stepped landscapes in the Dugald River area record a progressive downward migration of a relatively flat weathering front. The steps in the landscape result from differential erosion of previously weathered bedrock displaying different susceptibility to weathering and contrasting resistance to erosion. Combined, the age versus elevation relationships measured yield a weathering rate of 3.8 m. Myr−1 (for the past 15 Ma) if a descending subhorizontal weathering front is assumed. The results also permit the calculation of the erosion rate of the more easily weathered and eroded lithologies, assuming an initially flat landscape as proposed in models of episodic landscape development. The average erosion rate for the past 15 Ma is 3.3 m. Myr−1, consistent with erosion rates obtained by cosmogenic isotope studies in the region.

Evaluation of the Importance of Attributes in Customer Satisfaction with Supermarkets in the Mid-Valley Region of the Itajai - SC

In a dynamic atmosphere of competitiveness, customer satisfaction is a key factor in the long term success of a business relationship. From this perspective, the objective of the article was to evaluate the importance of attributes and customer satisfaction with Supermarkets in the Mid-Valley region of the ltajai/SC. Research methodology is characterized as descriptive, of the survey type, with a quantitative, cross section approach. The research instrument used was a questionnaire structured with open and closed questions, according to Lickert`s scale. By means of this, the degree of importance of supermarket attributes and the level of customer satisfaction with them were verified. In regard to the importance of the attributes, cleaning, parking, safety and variety of products are the most important, while the attributes Of purchase through the internet and taste samples are the least significant ones. The results of satisfaction point to the fact that the Supermarkets Big and Angeloni presented a greater degree of satisfaction in relation to the general average in practically all of the attributes, while Bistek presented the smallest degree of satisfaction, only surpassing the average in regard to the attribute of store lighting.

Observations of anti-winds in a deep alpine valley, Lake Tekapo, New Zealand

This paper presents observations of summertime anti-winds monitored under ideal conditions in the Lake Tekapo hydro-catchment situated in the central Southern Alps, New Zealand. Onset and cessation of anti-winds was observed to coincide with the change in phase of the surface limbs of thermally generated valley and mountain winds under settled anti-cyclonic conditions. Anti-winds were best developed in the early morning before surface heating and associated convective mixing of the valley atmosphere began to mask the boundaries between the surface based limb of the mountain-valley wind and the corresponding anti-wind. By mid-day, the anti-valley wind exceeded the height of the surrounding ridgeline and became embedded in the topographically channeled gradient wind. Observations presented here have both theoretical and applied implications with regard to the development of thermally generated wind systems in deep alpine valleys, and their role in the dispersion of air pollution.