Acute insult of ammonia leads to calcium-dependent glutamate release from cultured astrocytes, an effect of pH.

Hyperammonemia is a key factor in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) as well as other metabolic encephalopathies, such as those associated with inherited disorders of urea cycle enzymes and in Reye's syndrome. Acute HE results in increased brain ammonia (up to 5 mM), astrocytic swelling, and altered glutamatergic function. In the present study, using fluorescence imaging techniques, acute exposure (10 min) of ammonia (NH4+/NH3) to cultured astrocytes resulted in a concentration-dependent, transient increase in [Ca2+]i. This calcium transient was due to release from intracellular calcium stores, since the response was thapsigargin-sensitive and was still observed in calcium-free buffer. Using an enzyme-linked fluorescence assay, glutamate release was measured indirectly via the production of NADH (a naturally fluorescent product when excited with UV light). NH4+/NH3 (5 mM) stimulated a calcium-dependent glutamate release from cultured astrocytes, which was inhibited after preincubation with 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid acetoxymethyl ester but unaffected after preincubation with glutamate transport inhibitors dihydrokainate and DL-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate. NH4+/NH3 (5 mM) also induced a transient intracellular alkaline shift. To investigate whether the effects of NH4+/NH3 were mediated by an increase in pH(i), we applied trimethylamine (TMA+/TMA) as another weak base. TMA+/TMA (5 mM) induced a similar transient increase in both pH(i) and [Ca2+]i (mobilization from intracellular calcium stores) and resulted in calcium-dependent release of glutamate. These results indicate that an acute exposure to ammonia, resulting in cytosolic alkalinization, leads to calcium-dependent glutamate release from astrocytes. A deregulation of glutamate release from astrocytes by ammonia could contribute to glutamate dysfunction consistently observed in acute HE.

Nerve terminal GABAA receptors activate Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent signaling to inhibit voltage-gated Ca2+ influx and glutamate release

-Aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors, a family of Cl-permeable ion channels, mediate fast synaptic inhibition as postsynaptically enriched receptors for -aminobutyric acid at GABAergic synapses. Here we describe an alternative type of inhibition mediated byGABAA receptors present on neocortical glutamatergic nerve terminals and examine the underlying signaling mechanism(s). By monitoring the activity of the presynaptic CaM kinase II/synapsin I signaling pathway in isolated nerve terminals, we demonstrate that GABAA receptor activation correlated with an increase in basal intraterminal [Ca2]i. Interestingly, this activation of GABAA receptors resulted in a reduction of subsequent depolarization-evoked Ca2 influx, which thereby led to an inhibition of glutamate release. To investigate how the observed GABAA receptor-mediated modulation operates, we determined the sensitivity of this process to the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter 1 antagonist bumetanide, as well as substitution of Ca2 with Ba2, or Ca2/calmodulin inhibition by W7. All of these treatments abolished the modulation by GABAA receptors. Application of selective antagonists of voltage-gated Ca2 channels (VGCCs) revealed that the GABAA receptor-mediated modulation of glutamate release required the specific activity of L- and R-type VGCCs. Crucially, the inhibition of release by these receptors was abolished in terminals isolated from R-type VGCC knock-out mice. Together, our results indicate that a functional coupling between nerve terminal GABAA receptors and L- or R-type VGCCs is mediated by Ca2/calmodulin-dependent signaling. This mechanism provides a GABA-mediated control of glutamatergic synaptic activity by a direct inhibition of glutamate release.

Physiological astrocytic calcium levels stimulate glutamate release to modulate adjacent neurons

Astrocytes can release glutamate in a calcium-dependent manner and consequently signal to adjacent neurons. Whether this glutamate release pathway is used during physiological signaling or is recruited only under pathophysiological conditions is not well defined. One reason for this lack of understanding is the limited knowledge about the levels of calcium necessary to stimulate glutamate release from astrocytes and about how they compare with the range of physiological calcium levels in these cells. We used flash photolysis to raise internal calcium in astrocytes, while monitoring astrocytic calcium levels and glutamate, which evoked slow inward currents that were recorded electrophysiologically from single neurons grown on microislands of astrocytes. With this approach, we demonstrate that modest changes of astrocytic calcium, from 84 to 140 nM, evoke substantial glutamatergic currents in neighboring neurons (−391 pA), with a Hill coefficient of 2.1 to 2.7. Because the agonists glutamate, norepinephrine, and dopamine all raise calcium in astrocytes to levels exceeding 1.8 μM, these quantitative studies demonstrate that the astrocytic glutamate release pathway is engaged at physiological levels of internal calcium. Consequently, the calcium-dependent release of glutamate from astrocytes functions within an appropriate range of astrocytic calcium levels to be used as a signaling pathway within the functional nervous system.

Cone photoreceptors respond to their own glutamate release in the tiger salamander.

Pulse-like currents resembling miniature postsynaptic currents were recorded in patch-clamped isolated cones from the tiger salamander retina. The events were absent in isolated cones without synaptic terminals. The frequency of events was increased by either raising the osmotic pressure or depolarizing the cell. It was decreased by the application of either glutamate or the glutamate-transport blockers dihydrokainate and D,L-threo-3-hydroxyaspartate. The events required external Na+ for which Li+ could not substitute. The reversal potential of these currents followed the equilibrium potential for Cl- when internal Cl- concentration was changed. Thus, these miniature currents appear to represent the presynaptic activation of the glutamate receptor with glutamate transporter-like pharmacology, caused by the photoreceptor's own vesicular glutamate release. Using a noninvasive method to preserve the intracellular Cl- concentration, we showed that glutamate elicits an outward current in isolated cones. Fluorescence of the membrane-permeable form of fura-2 was used to monitor Ca2+ entry at the cone terminal as a measure of membrane depolarization. The increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration, elicited by puff application of 30 mM KCl, was completely suppressed in the presence of 100 microM glutamate. Puff application of glutamate alone had no measurable depolarizing effect. These results suggest that the equilibrium potential for Cl-, ECl, was more negative than the activation range for Ca2+ channels and that glutamate elicited an outward current, hyperpolarizing the cones.

Calcium-dependent glutamate release during neuronal development and synaptogenesis: different involvement of omega-agatoxin IVA- and omega-conotoxin GVIA-sensitive channels.

Hippocampal neurons maintained in primary culture recycle synaptic vesicles and express functional glutamate receptors since early stages of neuronal development. By analyzing glutamate-induced cytosolic calcium changes to sense presynaptically released neurotransmitter, we demonstrate that the ability of neurons to release glutamate in the extracellular space is temporally coincident with the property of synaptic vesicles to undergo exocytotic-endocytotic recycling. Neuronal differentiation and maturation of synaptic contacts coincide with a change in the subtype of calcium channels primarily involved in controlling neurosecretion. Whereas omega-agatoxin IVA-sensitive channels play a role in controlling neurotransmitter secretion at all stages of neuronal differentiation, omega-conotoxin GVIA-sensitive channels are primarily involved in mediating glutamate release at early developmental stages only.

High throughput analysis of endogenous glutamate release using a fluorescence plate reader

Recent discoveries of different modes of exocytosis and a plethora of molecules involved in neurotransmitter release has resulted in demand for more rapid and efficient methods for monitoring endogenous glutamate release from various tissue sources. In this article, we describe a high throughput microplate version of the enzyme-linked fluorescence detection method for the measurement of released glutamate, which utilises glutamate dehydrogenase, and the reduction of NADP to NADPH. Previous versions of this method rely upon cuvette-based fluorimeters for detection that are limited by large sample volumes and small numbers of samples that can be measured simultaneously. Comparison between the two methods shows that the microplate assay has comparable performance to the cuvette-based assay but has the capacity to analyse many times more samples in a given run. This increased capacity provides improved experimental design opportunities, higher experimental throughput and better comparison between experimental conditions. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Differential control of two forms of glutamate release by group III metabotropic glutamate receptors at rat entorhinal synapses

Neurotransmitter release at CNS synapses occurs via both action potential-dependent and independent mechanisms, and it has generally been accepted that these two forms of release are regulated in parallel. We examined the effects of activation of group III metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) on stimulus-evoked and spontaneous glutamate release onto entorhinal cortical neurones in rats, and found a differential regulation of action potential-dependent and independent forms of release. Activation of presynaptic mGluRs depressed the amplitude of stimulus-evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents, but concurrently enhanced the frequency of spontaneous excitatory currents. Moreover, these differential effects on glutamate release were mediated by pharmacologically separable mechanisms. Application of the specific activator of adenylyl cyclase, forskolin, mimicked the effect of mGluR activation on spontaneous, but not evoked release, and inhibition of adenylyl cyclase with 9-tetrahydro-2-furanyl)-9H-purin-6-amine (SQ22536) blocked mGluR-mediated enhancement of spontaneous release, but not depression of evoked release. Occlusion studies with calcium channel blockers suggested that the group III mGluRs might depress evoked release through inhibition of both N and P/Q, but not R-type calcium channels. We suggest that the concurrent depression of action potential-evoked, and enhancement of action potential-independent glutamate release operate through discrete second messenger/effector systems at excitatory entorhinal terminals in rat brain. © 2007 IBRO.

Modulation of GABA and glutamate release by brain-derived neurotrophic factor : role of adenosine A2A receptors

Trabalho Final do Curso de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, 2014

Increased extracellular brain glutamate in acute liver failure: decreased uptake or increased release?

Glutamatergic dysfunction has been suggested to play an important role in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) in acute liver failure (ALF). Increased extracellular brain glutamate concentrations have consistently been described in different experimental animal models of ALF and in patients with increased intracranial pressure due to ALF. High brain ammonia levels remain the leading candidate in the pathogenesis of HE in ALF and studies have demonstrated a correlation between ammonia and increased concentrations of extracellular brain glutamate both clinically and in experimental animal models of ALE Inhibition of glutamate uptake or increased glutamate release from neurons and/or astrocytes could cause an increase in extracellular glutamate. This review analyses the effect of ammonia on glutamate release from (and uptake into) both neurons and astrocytes and how these pathophysiological mechanisms may be involved in the pathogenesis of HE in ALF.

Depression of glutamate and GABA release by presynaptic GABAB receptors in the entorhinal cortex in normal and chronically epileptic rats

Presynaptic GABAB receptors (GABABR) control glutamate and GABA release at many synapses in the nervous system. In the present study we used whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of spontaneous excitatory and inhibitory synaptic currents in the presence of TTX to monitor glutamate and GABA release from synapses in layer II and V of the rat entorhinal cortex (EC)in vitro. In both layers the release of both transmitters was reduced by application of GABABR agonists. Quantitatively, the depression of GABA release in layer II and layer V, and of glutamate release in layer V was similar, but glutamate release in layer II was depressed to a greater extent. The data suggest that the same GABABR may be present on both GABA and glutamate terminals in the EC, but that the heteroreceptor may show a greater level of expression in layer II. Studies with GABABR antagonists suggested that neither the auto- nor the heteroreceptor was consistently tonically activated by ambient GABA in the presence of TTX. Studies in EC slices from rats made chronically epileptic using a pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy revealed a reduced effectiveness of both auto- and heteroreceptor function in both layers. This could suggest that enhanced glutamate and GABA release in the EC may be associated with the development of the epileptic condition. Copyright © 2006 S. Karger AG.

Increased expression of cystine/glutamate antiporter in multiple sclerosis

Background: Glutamate excitotoxicity contributes to oligodendrocyte and tissue damage in multiple sclerosis (MS). Intriguingly, glutamate level in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of MS patients is elevated, a feature which may be related to the pathophysiology of this disease. In addition to glutamate transporters, levels of extracellular glutamate are controlled by cystine/glutamate antiporter x(c)(-), an exchanger that provides intracellular cystine for production of glutathione, the major cellular antioxidant. The objective of this study was to analyze the role of the system x(c)(-) in glutamate homeostasis alterations in MS pathology. -- Methods: Primary cultures of human monocytes and the cell line U-937 were used to investigate the mechanism of glutamate release. Expression of cystine glutamate exchanger (xCT) was quantified by quantitative PCR, Western blot, flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry in monocytes in vitro, in animals with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the animal model of MS, and in samples of MS patients. -- Results and discussion: We show here that human activated monocytes release glutamate through cystine/glutamate antiporter x(c)(-) and that the expression of the catalytic subunit xCT is upregulated as a consequence of monocyte activation. In addition, xCT expression is also increased in EAE and in the disease proper. In the later, high expression of xCT occurs both in the central nervous system (CNS) and in peripheral blood cells. In particular, cells from monocyte-macrophage-microglia lineage have higher xCT expression in MS and in EAE, indicating that immune activation upregulates xCT levels, which may result in higher glutamate release and contribution to excitotoxic damage to oligodendrocytes. -- Conclusions: Together, these results reveal that increased expression of the cystine/glutamate antiporter system x(c)(-) in MS provides a link between inflammation and excitotoxicity in demyelinating diseases.

GABA release by hippocampal astrocytes

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Modulation de l’expression du transporteur vésiculaire du glutamate : implication dans la plasticité des neurones dopaminergiques

De nombreuses études ont établi que la majorité des neurones libèrent plus qu’une substance chimique. Il est bien connu que les neurones peuvent co-exprimer et co-libérer des neuropeptides en plus de leur neurotransmetteur, mais des évidences de la co-libération de deux petits neurotransmetteurs à action rapide se sont accumulées récemment. Des enregistrements électrophysiologiques ont aussi montré que des neurones sérotoninergiques et dopaminergiques isolés peuvent libérer du glutamate quand ils sont placés en culture. De plus, la présence de glutamate et de glutaminase a été détectée dans des neurones sérotoninergiques, dopaminergiques et noradrénergiques par immunomarquage sur des tranches de cerveau. Malheureusement, en considérant le rôle métabolique du glutamate, sa détection immunologique n’est pas suffisante pour assurer le phénotype glutamatergique d’un neurone. Récemment, la découverte de trois transporteurs vésiculaires du glutamate (VGLUT1-3) a grandement facilité l’identification des neurones glutamatergiques. Ces transporteurs sont nécessaires pour la libération de glutamate et constituent les premiers marqueurs morphologiques du phénotype glutamatergique. Il a été démontré que des neurones noradrénergiques expriment VGLUT2 et que des neurones sérotoninergiques expriment VGLUT3. Mais aucune évidence d’expression d’un des sous-types de VGLUT n’a été reportée pour les neurones dopaminergiques. Le but de notre travail était d’identifier quel sous-type de VGLUT est exprimé par les neurones dopaminergiques mésencéphaliques, et de déterminer si le phénotype glutamatergique de ces neurones peut être modulé dans des conditions particulières. Premièrement, nous avons utilisé des microcultures pour isoler les neurones dopaminergiques et des doubles marquages immunocytochimiques pour observer l’expression de VGLUT dans les neurones positifs pour la tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Nous avons montré que la majorité (80%) des neurones TH+ isolés exprime spécifiquement VGLUT2. Cette expression est précoce au cours du développement in vitro et limitée aux projections axonales des neurones dopaminergiques. Toutefois, cette forte expression in vitro contraste avec la non-détection de ce transporteur dans les rats adultes in vivo. Nous avons décidé ensuite de regarder si l’expression de VGLUT2 pouvait être régulée pendant le développement cérébral de jeunes rats et sous des conditions traumatiques, par double hybridation in situ. Entre 14 et 16 jours embryonnaires, les marquages de VGLUT2 et de TH montraient une superposition significative qui n’était pas retrouvée à des stades ultérieurs. Dans le mésencéphale de jeunes rats postnataux, nous avons détecté l’ARNm de VGLUT2 dans environs 1-2% des neurones exprimant l’ARNm de TH dans la substance noire et l’aire tegmentaire ventrale (ATV). Pour explorer la régulation de l’expression de VGLUT2 dans des conditions traumatiques, nous avons utilisé la 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) pour léser les neurones dopaminergiques dans les jeunes rats. Dix jours après la chirurgie, nous avons trouvé que 27% des neurones dopaminergiques survivants dans l’ATV exprimaient l’ARNm de VGLUT2 dans les rats 6-OHDA. Finalement, nous avons observé la colocalisation de la protéine VGLUT2 dans les terminaisons TH positives par microscopie électronique. Dans les rats normaux, la protéine VGLUT2 est retrouvée dans 28% des terminaisons axonales TH dans le noyau accumbens. Dans les rats lésés à la 6-OHDA, nous avons observé une diminution considérable des terminaisons TH positives, et une augmentation dans la proportion (37%) des terminaisons dopaminergiques présentant du VGLUT2. Nos résultats suggèrent que le phénotype glutamatergique des neurones dopaminergiques est régulé au cours du développement, peut être réactivé dans des états pathologiques, et que ces neurones peuvent libérer du glutamate dans conditions spécifiques.

Rôles physiologiques du transporteur vésiculaire du glutamate VGLUT2 dans les neurones dopaminergiques

Des travaux récents démontrent que certains neurones dopaminergiques du mésencéphale ont la capacité de libérer du glutamate en plus de la dopamine (DA). Ce phénomène de « co-transmission » requiert l’expression du transporteur vésiculaire du glutamate de type 2 (VGLUT2) dans les neurones dopaminergiques. Certaines observations montrent que l’expression de VGLUT2 dans les neurones dopaminergiques survient tôt durant leur développement et est essentiellement limitée aux neurones de l’aire tegmentaire ventrale (VTA). De plus, cette libération de glutamate se retrouve principalement au niveau des terminaisons de ces neurones dans le striatum ventral, mais pas dans le striatum dorsal. Ces données suggèrent d’une part un rôle développemental possible du glutamate dans les neurones dopaminergiques, et d’autre part, que les signaux dérivés des neurones cibles puissent réguler le double phénotype des neurones dopaminergiques menant ainsi à une plasticité phénotypique. Par ailleurs, il est toujours inconnu si cette libération de glutamate se fait à partir des terminaisons qui relâchent la DA ou à partir de terminaisons axonales distinctes. De plus, le rôle physiologique de ce surprenant phénomène de co-transmission reste également inconnu. Ainsi, dans cette étude, nous avons d’abord démontré in vitro et in vivo que l’expression de VGLUT2 est nécessaire pour la survie et la croissance d’une sous-population de neurones dopaminergiques. En utilisant une lignée de souris ayant une délétion génique spécifique de VGLUT2 dans les neurones dopaminergiques, nous avons observé une diminution du nombre de terminaisons dopaminergiques et glutamatergiques dans le striatum, une baisse de libération de DA dans le striatum ventral, une diminution de la coordination motrice ainsi qu’une diminution de l’activité locomotrice induite par les drogues d’abus. D’autre part, nous avons démontré in vitro et in vivo que les neurones dopaminergiques au double phénotype établissent des terminaisons distinctes afin de relâcher le glutamate et la DA. De plus, nous démontrons que ce phénomène de ségrégation des sites de libération semble être induit par une interaction avec les neurones du striatum ventral. Ces travaux démontrent le rôle physiologique déterminant de la co-transmission DA-glutamate pour l’homéostasie du système DAergique et dévoile une caractéristique fondamentale de l’établissement des terminaisons axonales de ces neurones. Ces travaux permettent ainsi de mieux comprendre les rôles physiologiques de la co-libération de glutamate par les neurones du système nerveux central et présentent une nouvelle perspective sur les dysfonctions potentielles de ces neurones dans les maladies du cerveau.