The glass ceiling hypothesis - A comparative study of the United States, Sweden, and Australia

The general-care glass ceiling hypothesis states that not only is it more difficult for women than for men to be promoted up levels of authority hierarchies within workplaces but also that the obstacles women face relative to men become greater as they move rtp the hierarchy. Gender-based discrimination in promotions is not simply present across levels of hierarchy but is more intense at higher levels. Empirically, this implies that the relative rates of women being promoted to higher levels compared to men should decline with the level of the hierarchy. This article explores this hypothesis with data from three countries: the United States, Australia, and Sweden. The basic conclusion is that while there is strong evidence for a general gender gap in authority-the odds of women having authority are less than those of men-there is no evidence for systematic glass ceiling effects in the United States and only weak evidence for such effects in the other two countries.

Under-achievement and the glass ceiling: Evidence from a TV game show

We use a Colombian TV game show to test gender differences in competitivebehavior where there is no opportunity for discrimination and females face no genderspecificexternal constraints. Each game started with six contestants who had toanswer general knowledge questions in private. There were five rounds of questionsand, at the end of each, one participant was eliminated. Despite equality in startingnumbers, women earn less than men and exit the game at a faster rate. In particular,there are more voluntary withdrawals by women than men. We draw an analogybetween the game and the process by which employees rise through the levels of acorporation. As such, we note that glass ceilings may result, in part, from women sown behavior and this raises the issue of how women are socialized to behave. At thesame time, our results illustrate that maintaining and promoting gender diversity at thelower/middle ranks of organizations is necessary to obtain gender diversity at the top.

Beyond the glass ceiling: Does gender matter?

The representation of women in top corporate officer positions is steadily increasing. However, little is known about the impact this will have. A large literature documents that women are different from men in their choices and in their preferences, but most of this literature relies on samples of college students or workers at lower levels in the corporate hierarchy. If women must be like men to break the glass ceiling, we might expect gender differences to disappear among top executives. In contrast, using a large survey of all directors of publicly-traded corporations in Sweden, we show that female and male directors differ systematically in their core values and risk attitudes. While certain population gender differences disappear at the director level, others do not. Consistent with the findings for the Swedish population, female directors are more benevolent and universally concerned, but less power-oriented than men. However, they are less traditional and security-oriented than their male counterparts. Furthermore, female directors are slightly more risk-loving than male directors. This suggests that having a women on the board need not lead to more risk-averse decision-making.

Race, ethnic, and gender earnings inequality : the sources and consequences of employment segregation : a report to the Glass Ceiling Commission, U.S. Department of Labor /

"January 1994."

Reinforcing the glass ceiling: The consequences of hostile sexism for female managerial candidates

Previous research has established that benevolent sexism is related to the negative evaluation of women who violate specific norms for behavior. Research has yet to document the causal impact of hostile sexism on evaluations of individual targets. Correlational evidence and ambivalent sexism theory led us to predict that hostile sexism would be associated with negative evaluations of a female candidate for a masculine-typed occupational role. Participants completed the ASI (P. Glick & S. T. Fiske, 1996) and evaluated a curriculum vitae from either a male or female candidate. Higher hostile sexism was significantly associated with more negative evaluations of the female candidate and with lower recommendations that she be employed as a manager. Conversely, higher hostile sexism was significantly associated with higher recommendations that a male candidate should be employed as a manager. Benevolent sexism was unrelated to evaluations and recommendations in this context. The findings support the hypothesis that hostile, but not benevolent, sexism results in negativity toward individual women who pose a threat to men's status in the workplace.

Betting Against the Glass Ceiling: Supervisor Gender & Employee Job Satisfaction in the Casino-Entertainment Industry

This exploratory study expands on hospitality management literature, specifically on the influence of a supervisor’s gender in regards to employee job satisfaction within the casino-entertainment sector. Employee job satisfaction was analyzed using company, department, and supervisor variables based on 961 surveys. The study’s results suggest that employees with male supervisors have a higher employee satisfaction level than employees with supervisors that are female. Hospitality organizations are therefore encouraged to create leadership programs to ensure women are a part of corporate leadership’s success formula for the future.

Globalization and women in southeast Asian higher education management

This paper draws on data from a group case study of women in higher education management in Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand. I investigate culture-specific dimensions of what the Western literature has conceptualized as glass ceiling impediments to women's career advancement in higher education. I frame my argument within recent debates about globalization and glocalization to show how the push-pull and disjunctive dynamics of globalization are experienced in local sites by social actors who traverse global flows and yet remain tethered to local discourses, values, and practices. All of the women in this study were trained in Western universities and are fluent English speakers, world-class experts in their fields, well versed with equity discourses, and globally connected on international nongovernment organization (NGO) and academic circuits. They are indeed global cosmopolitans. And yet their testimonies indicate that so-called Asian values and religious-cultural ideologies demand the enactment of a specific construct of Asian femininity that militates against meritocratic equality and academic career aspirations to senior management levels. Despite the global nature of the University and increasing global flows of academics, students, and knowledge, the politics of academic glass ceilings are not universal but always locally inflected with cultural values and norms. As such, the politics of disadvantage for women in higher education require local and situated analyses in the context of global patterns of the educational status Of women and the changing nature of higher education.

A Participação das mulheres na administração das empresas “O Teto de vidro”

Dissertação apresentada ao Instituto Superior de Contabilidade para a obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Auditoria Orientador: Mestre Helena Maria Santos de Oliveira

Meta-analysis of gender and science research - Country report - Portugal

In Portugal, especially starting in the 1970s, women’s studies had implications on the emergency of the concept of gender and the feminist criticism to the prevailing models about differences between sexes. Until then, women had been absent from scientific research both as subject and as object. Feminism brought more reflexivity to the scientific thinking. After the 25th of April 1974, because of the consequent political openness, several innovating themes of research emerged, together with new concepts and fields of study. However, as far as gender and science relationship is concerned, such studies especially concentrate on higher education institutions. The feminist thinking seems to have two main objectives: to give women visibility, on the one hand, and to denunciate men’s domain in the several fields of knowledge. In 1977, the “Feminine Commission” is created and since then it has been publishing studies on women’s condition and contributing to the enhancement of the reflection of female condition at all levels. In the 1980s, the growing feminisation of tertiary education (both of students and academics), favoured the development of women’s studies, especially on their condition within universities with a special focus on the glass ceiling, despite the lack of statistical data by gender, thus making difficult the analysis of women integration in several sectors, namely in educational and scientific research activities. Other agglutinating themes are family, social and legal condition, work, education, and feminine intervention on political and social movements. In the 1990s, Women Studies are institutionalised in the academic context with the creation of the first Master in Women Studies in the Universidade Aberta (Open University), in Lisbon. In 1999, the first Portuguese journal of women studies is created – “Faces de Eva”. Seminars, conferences, thesis, journals, and projects on women’s studies are more and more common. However, results and publications are not so divulgated as they should be, because of lack of comprehensive and coordinated databases. 2. Analysis by topics 2.1. Horizontal and vertical segregation Research questions It is one of the main areas of research in Portugal. Essentially two issues have been considered: - The analysis of vertical gender segregation in educational and professional fields, having reflexes on women professional career progression with special attention to men’s power in control positions and the glass ceiling. - The analysis of horizontal segregation, special in higher education (teaching and research) where women have less visibility than men, and the under-representation of women in technology and technological careers. Research in this area mainly focuses on description, showing the under-representation of women in certain scientific areas and senior positions. Nevertheless, the studies that analyze horizontal segregation in the field of education adopt a more analytical approach which focuses on the analysis of the mechanisms of reproduction of gender stereotypes, especially socialisation, influencing educational and career choices. 1

Exploring women's academic careers in cross-national perspective: lessons for equal epportunity eolicies

Purpose - In recent years, several countries and/or higher education institutions have adopted equal opportunity policies to promote women's access to the upper levels of the academic career structure. The purpose of this paper is to argue that there is no universal solution to the glass ceiling that women face within academia. Insofar as the feminisation process evolves according to a variety of models, according to national and occupational context, the solutions adopted in one context may prove to be ineffective elsewhere. Design/methodology/approach - Analysis of the different models of occupational feminisation is based on a secondary analysis of the sociological literature on the subject, combined with recent data on women's access to academic positions in France and Germany. Findings - Although there are similarities in the structure of the academic labour market across countries and in the rate of feminisation of the most prestigious academic positions, the precise mechanisms through which women gain access to an academic career vary significantly from one national context to another. This cross-national variation would tend to suggest that there will also be variation when it comes to defining the most effective policy measures for increasing women's access to the upper echelons of the academic hierarchy. Indeed, different models of gender equality in academia may lead to very different results with regard to existing gender relations. Originality/value - The paper uses the available sociological literature on the feminisation process to examine how different measures adopted to promote women's access to the highest echelons of the academic career structure may have different effects on the reproduction and/or transformation of the dominant sex/gender system.

Naisjohtajat – miksi heitä ei ole ja mitä siitä? - miesjohtajien ja ei-johtavassa asemassa olevien naisten näkemyksiä case-yritys x:ssä

Joidenkin tutkimusten mukaan naisten vähäinen määrä johdossa voi olla uhka organisaatiolle. Lasikattoilmiöllä tarkoitetaan naisten urakehityksen katkeamista tietylle tasolle ylimmän johdon alapuolelle ikään kuin naisten ja tuon ylimmän tason välissä olisi lasinen, näkymätön katto, sukupuolistereotypioiden muodostama este. Yksi yleinen lasikaton selitysten kolmijako on henkilökohtaiset, organisatoriset ja yhteiskunnalliset tekijät. (Lämsä & Hautala 2004, 252). Hoyt (2007, 270-278) tekee kolmijaon seuraavasti: inhimillinen pääoma, sukupuolierot ja ennakkoluulot. Yritys X:n keskijohdossa työskentelee yksi nainen, ylimmässä johdossa ei yhtäkään. Tutkimuksessa halu-taan selvittää miesjohtajien ja ei-johtavassa asemassa olevien naisten käsitystä siitä, onko yritys x:ssä lasi-kattoa, miksi naisjohtajia on niin vähän ja "mitä siitä" ts. onko mitään ongelmaa olemassakaan. Tässä tutkimuksessa pohditaan diskurssianalyysin keinoin, miten yritys X:ssä puhutaan naisjohtajuusaiheesta, millai-seksi sukupuolen merkitys työelämässä määritellään ja mitä ajatellaan naisten kykenevyydestä johtajiksi. Naturalisoiva diskurssi oli vahva niin miesjohtajien ja ei-johtavassa asemassa olevien naisten puheessa. Sen lisäksi hahmotellaan familistista, empiiristä, humanistista ja historiallista diskurssia naisjohtajuuspuheesta. Diskurssien yhteenkietominen hegemonisoimisstrategiana kuvaa tapaa, jolla palasia muista diskursseista käytetään tukemaan tiettyä toista diskurssia (Jokinen et al. 1993c, 95) Miesjohtajien puheessa naisten keskeiset, ominaisuudet - liiallinen tarkkuus ja huolellisuus yhdistettynä epävarmuuteen - ovat ongelmallisia johtajanuran kannalta. Jos näistä johtajuuden kannalta negatiivisista ominaisuuksista ei jostain syystä kuitenkaan muodostuisi uralla etenemisen estettä, äitiys ja perheellisyys "luonnollisesti" tekee tämän. Aiheet myös kietoutuvat yhteen: äitiys ja vastuu perheestä lisäävät naisten huolellisuutta, tarkkuutta ja epävarmuutta entisestään. Lisäksi äitiyslomat ja työhön käytettävissä oleva aika ja puut-tuva halu käyttää elämästä iso osa uranluomiseen ovat johtajaksi etenemisen esteitä. Miesjohtajien mukaan tämä on jossain määrin ongelma, kun heterogeenisyyttä johtamiseen kuitenkin tarvittaisiin, mutta loppujen lopuksi kuitenkin melko epäkiinnostava ja pieni ongelma; ongelma ei miesten mielestä johdu miesten tai yhteiskunnallisista asenteista, vaan naisista itsestään ja he tarvitsevat uralla edetäkseen tukea, rohkaisua ja henkilöstöpankkeja, joita miesjohtajat voivat tuottaa. Johtaminen ylipäänsä ei ole miesjohtajien mielestä hirveän kiinnostavaa. Jos naiset (kaikesta edellä sanotusta huolimatta) etenevät yritysten johtoon, eivät he tule siellä toimeen keskenään. Kaiken kaikkiaan koko naisjohtajuusaihe ei ole kovin kiinnostava ja naisjohtajuuden vähäisyyden (mahdollisen) ongelman ratkaisee aika uuden, tasa-arvoisemman sukupolven myötä. Naishaastateltujen näkökulmasta sen sijaan naisilla on pyrkyä johtotehtäviin - joskaan ei samassa määrin kuin miehillä. Naishaastateltujen mukaan miehet suosivat toisiaan työelämässä ja naiset kohtaavat asenteita, joita vastaan joutuvat taistelemaan ja tästä syystä johtajien joukossa on niin vähän naisia. Historialliset tekijät pitävät asenteita yllä. Perheellisyys on naisille suurempi uraeste kuin miehille, "luonnollisesti". Naishaastateltujen mielestä naisten vähäisyys johdossa on merkittävä ongelma, koska naisilla on erityislaatuisia ominaisuuksia, joista olisi hyötyä tehtävässä. Naishaastateltujen puheessa miesten ominaisuuksia vastaavasti vähäteltiin. Naisjohtajien vähäisyyden ongelmalle ei naishaastateltujen mielestä kuitenkaan ole tehtävissä paljonkaan: miesten ja yhteiskunnan asenteiden pitäisi muuttua, mutta keinoja tähän ei esitetä, sen sijaan naisten itsensä pitäisi vain "yrittää vielä kovemmin".

Engagement y productividad en las empresas

El presente trabajo pretende mostrar algunos avances en el término “engagement”, y como puede ser implementado en las organizaciones, teniendo en cuenta los diferentes factores que intervienen, para que los trabajadores se sientan “engaged” dentro de la organización. Además busca relacionar las diferentes habilidades y tipos de liderazgo que los altos mandos utilizan con sus empleados y como éste afecta la productividad de los trabajadores en las organizaciones. Para esto, se realizó una investigación de las clases de liderazgo y los comportamientos de los altos mandos, que pueden afectar positiva y negativamente el vínculo y sentido de pertenencia que tienen los trabajadores con la empresa en la que trabajan. Considerando importante las habilidades del liderazgo transformacional, para lograr desarrollar algún grado de engagement en los trabajadores, lo cual genera a su vez, un alza en la productividad de sus resultados dentro de la organización.

Nova Talenta: 2014-2015

Contenido Introducción 1. Inteligencia emocional, liderazgo transformacional y género: factores que influencian el desempeño organizacional / Ana María Galindo Londoño, Sara Urrego Mayorga; Director: Juan Carlos Espinosa Méndez. 2. El rol de la mujer en el liderazgo / Andrea Patricia Cuestas Díaz; Directora: Francoise Venezia Contreras Torres. 3. Liderazgo transformacional, clima organizacional, satisfacción laboral y desempeño. Una revisión de la literatura / Juliana Restrepo Orozco, Ángela Marcela Ochoa Rodríguez; Directora: Françoise Venezia Contreras Torres. 4. “E-Leadership” una perspectiva al mundo de las compañías globalizadas / Ángela Beatriz Morales Morales, Mónica Natalia Aguilera Velandia; Director: Juan Carlos Espinosa. 5. Liderazgo y cultura. Una revisión / Daniel Alejandro Romero Galindo; Directora: Francoise Venezia Contreras Torres. 6. La investigación sobre la naturaleza del trabajo directivo: una revisión de la literatura / Julián Felipe Rodríguez Rivera, María Isabel Álvarez Rodríguez; Director: Juan Javier Saavedra Mayorga. 7. La mujer en la alta dirección en el contexto colombiano / Ana María Moreno, Juliana Moreno Jaramillo ; Directora: Françoise Venezia Contreras Torres. 8. Influencia de la personalidad en el discurso y liderazgo de George W. Bush después del 11 de septiembre de 2011 / Karen Eliana Mesa Torres; Director: Juan Carlos Espinosa. 9. La investigación sobre el campo del followership: una revisión de la literatura / Christian D. Báez Millán, Leidy J. Pinzón Porras; Director: Juan Javier Saavedra Mayorga. 10. El liderazgo desde la perspectiva del poder y la influencia. Una revisión de la literatura / Lina María García, Juan Sebastián Naranjo; Director: Juan Javier Saavedra Mayorga. 11. El trabajo directivo para líderes y gerentes: una visión integradora de los roles organizacionales / Lina Marcela Escobar Campos, Daniel Mora Barrero; Director: Rafael Piñeros. 12. Participación emocional en la toma de decisiones / Lina Rocío Poveda C., Gloria Johanna Rueda L.; Directora: Francoise Contreras T. 13. Estrés y su relación con el liderazgo / María Camila García Sierra, Diana Paola Rocha Cárdenas; Director: Juan Carlos Espinosa. 14. “Burnout y engagement” / María Paola Jaramillo Barrios, Natalia Rojas Mancipe; Director: Rafael Piñeros.

Cuerpos Intervenidos : Experiencias corporales diferenciadas de la feminidad y el cáncer de seno

Este proyecto de investigación se enfoca en estudiar la configuración de las feminidades en mujeres que han pasado por la experiencia del cáncer de seno. Teniendo en cuenta que cada una de ellas tiene una trayectoria social diferente que determina el desarrollo de la feminidad y de la experiencia de la enfermedad. La metodología que se utilizó dentro de la investigación fue de carácter etnográfico, ya que se pretendió dar cuentan de la experiencia de la enfermedad, la corporalidad y la subjetividad.