Chapter 5 Product Differentiation versus Geographical Differentiation: Evidence from the Pork Processing Industry in China

This chapter attempts to identify whether product differentiation or geographical differentiation is the main source of profit for firms in developing economies by employing a simple idea from the recently developed method of empirical industrial organization. Theoretically, location choice and product choice have been considered as analogues in differentiation, but in the real world, which of these strategies is chosen will result in an immense difference in firm behavior and in the development process of the industry. Development of the technique of empirical industrial organization enabled us to identify market outcomes with endogeneity. A typical case is the market outcome with differentiation, where price or product choice is endogenously determined. Our original survey contains data on market location, differences in product types, and price. The results show that product differentiation rather than geographical differentiation mitigates pressure on price competition, but 70 per cent secures geographical monopoly.

The taxonomy and morphological and anatomical differentiation of populations of Leiothrix crassifolia (Eriocaulaceae)

The morphological and anatomical leaf and scape differentiation of Leiothrix crassifolia is analysed and classified into seven types (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, Vn). The species has a relatively wide distribution in the campo rupestre of Minas Gerais in Brazil. Variation in the isolated populations on different mountain ranges is complex, does not follow a clear geographical pattern, and defies taxonomic classification. L. nubigena and L. obtusifolia are included in L. crassifolia.

Geographic differentiation of polymorphism in the Plasmodium falciparum malaria vaccine candidate gene SERA5

SERA5 is regarded as a promising malaria vaccine candidate of the most virulent human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. SERA5 is a 120 kDa abundantly expressed blood-stage protein containing a papain-like protease. Since substantial polymorphism in blood-stage vaccine candidates may potentially limit their efficacy, it is imperative to fully investigate polymorphism of the SERA5 gene (sera5). In this study, we performed evolutionary and population genetic analysis of sera5. The level of inter-species divergence (kS = 0.076) between P. falciparum and Plasmodium reichenowi, a closely related chimpanzee malaria parasite is comparable to that of housekeeping protein genes. A signature of purifying selection was detected in the proenzyme and enzyme domains. Analysis of 445 near full-length P. falciparum sera5 sequences from nine countries in Africa, Southeast Asia, Oceania and South America revealed extensive variations in the number of octamer repeat (OR) and serine repeat (SR) regions as well as substantial level of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in non-repeat regions (2562 bp). Remarkably, a 14 amino acid sequence of SERA5 (amino acids 59-72) that is known to be the in vitro target of parasite growth inhibitory antibodies was found to be perfectly conserved in all 445 worldwide isolates of P. falciparum evaluated. Unlike other major vaccine target antigen genes such as merozoite surface protein-1, apical membrane antigen-1 or circumsporozoite protein, no strong evidence for positive selection was detected for SNPs in the non-repeat regions of sera5. A biased geographical distribution was observed in SNPs as well as in the haplotypes of the sera5 OR and SR regions. In Africa, OR- and SR-haplotypes with low frequency (<5%) and SNPs with minor allele frequency (<5%) were abundant and were mostly continent-specific. Consistently, significant genetic differentiation, assessed by the Wright's fixation index (FST) of inter-population variance in allele frequencies, was detected for SNPs and both OR- and SR-haplotypes among almost all parasite populations. The exception was parasite populations between Tanzania and Ghana, suggesting frequent gene flow in Africa. The present study points to the importance of investigating whether biased geographical distribution for SNPs and repeat variants in the OR and SR regions affect the reactivity of human serum antibodies to variants. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

More than cheap talk? Euro-Mediterranean cooperation on human rights and democracy

Malgrat els esforços de la UE en la promoció de la democràcia i un compromís comú per la democràcia i els drets humans al EMP, no hi ha signes de convergència cap al model liberal democràtic propugnat per la UE. No obstant això, l'abast i la intensitat de la cooperació multilateral, transnacional i bilateral han augmentat constantment en tota la regió des de mitjans de 1990. La cooperació en el camp de la promoció de la democràcia es caracteritza per la forta dinàmica de normativa sectorial, i la diferenciació geogràfica, però està clarament situada en un marc regional i altament estandarditzat. Si bé la convergència política o la política sembla poc probable en el curt o mitjà termini, democràcia i drets humans estan fermament establerts en una agenda regional comú

Variability in isolates of Puccinia polysora in Brazil

The main objective of this work was to evaluate the variability of the southern rust pathogen Puccinia polysora in Brazil, based on its virulence on a set of maize (Zea mays) cultivars. Sixty single pustule isolates, from different areas of occurrence of southern rust, were evaluated for their virulence to 50 maize experimental hybrids. Six cultivars showed a clear distinction between susceptible and resistant reaction, and were used to characterize the variability of the pathogen. Seventeen virulence patterns were identified among the 60 isolates tested. The most frequent virulence patterns identified, were observed in all locations of sampling, which suggests the absence of geographical differentiation among prevalent populations of P. polysora in Brazil.

Dialetos Gestuais em Portugal

Os dialetos das línguas orais consistem numa variação linguística que se pode concretizar, sobretudo em alterações fonológicas e lexicais que derivam da diferenciação geográfica. Na língua gestual portuguesa (LGP) parece verificar-se o mesmo fenómeno, embora a motivação para a variação linguística possa não ser apenas geográfica. A presente dissertação de Mestrado pretende estudar os dialetos em língua gestual portuguesa, registando, para o efeito, gestos produzidos e analisados por surdos de diferentes regiões do país. Em particular, pretendem analisar-se as variantes dialetais utilizadas por surdos que tenham frequentado diferentes escolas e espaços de convívio. Serão também investigadas as relações de poder local que envolvem a escolha de determinados gestos pelos usuários da língua.

Estrutura da população e epidemiologia de Moniliophthora roreri no Magdalena Medio Colombiano

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Differentiation of Melipona quadrifasciata L. (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Meliponini) subspecies using cytochrome b PCR-RFLP patterns

Melipona quadrifasciata quadrifasciata and M. quadrifasciata anthidioides are subspecies of M. quadrifasciata, a stingless bee species common in coastal Brazil. These subspecies are discriminated by the yellow stripe pattern of the abdominal tergites. We found Vsp I restriction patterns in the cytochrome b region closely associated to each subspecies in 155 M. quadrifasciata colonies of different geographical origin. This mitochondrial DNA molecular marker facilitates diagnosis of M. quadrifasciata subspecies matrilines and can be used to establish their natural distribution and identify hybrid colonies.

Determination of the geographical origin of Brazilian wines by isotope and mineral analysis

In the present research, we studied wines from three different south Brazilian winemaking regions with the purpose of differentiating them by geographical origin of the grapes. Brazil`s wide territory and climate diversity allow grape cultivation and winemaking in many regions of different and unique characteristics. The wine grape cultivation for winemaking concentrates in the South Region, mainly in the Serra GaA(0)cha, the mountain area of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which is responsible for 90% of the domestic wine production. However, in recent years, two new production regions have developed: the Campanha, the plains to the south and the Serra do Sudeste, the hills to the southeast of the state. Analysis of isotopic ratios of (18)O/(16)O of wine water, (13)C/(12)C of ethanol, and of minerals were used to characterize wines from different regions. The isotope analysis of delta(18)O of wine water and minerals Mg and Rb were the most efficient to differentiate the regions. By using isotope and mineral analysis, and discrimination analysis, it was possible to classify the wines from south Brazil.

Molecular detection and differentiation of Brazilian and African isolates of the entomopathogen Neozygites tanajoae (Entomophthorales: Neozygitaceae) with PCR using specific primers

Neozygites tanajoae is an entomopathogenic fungus which has been used for biocontrol of the cassava green mite (Mononychellus tanajoa, CGM) in Africa. Establishment and dispersal of Brazilian isolates which have been introduced into some African countries in recent years to improve CGM control was followed with specific PCR assays. Two primer pairs, NEOSSU_F/NEOSSU_R and 8DDC_F/8DDC_R, were used to differentiate isolates collected from several locations in Brazil and from three countries in Africa, Benin, Ghana and Tanzania. The first primer pair enabled the species-specific detection of Neozygites tanajoae, while the second differentiated the Brazilian isolates from those of other geographical origin. PCR assays were designed for detection of fungal DNA in the matrix of dead infested mites since N. tanajoae is difficult to isolate and culture on selective artificial media. Our results show that all isolates (Brazilian and African) that sporulated on mummified mites were amplified with the first primer pair confirming their Neozygites tanajoae identity. The second pair amplified DNA from all the Brazilian isolates, but did not amplify any DNA samples from the African isolates. None of the two primers showed amplification neither from any of the non-sporulating mite extracts nor from the dead uninfected mites used as negative controls. We confirmed that the two primer pairs tested are suitable for the detection and differential identification of N. tanajoae isolates from Brazil and Africa and that they are useful to monitor the establishment and spread of the Brazilian isolates of N. tanajoae introduced into Benin or into other African countries for improvement of CGM biocontrol.

Habitat differentiation between groups of Risso's dolphins as evidence of coastal nursery areas

26th Annual Conference of the European Cetacean Society, Galway, Ireland 26-28 March 2012.

Espresso beverages of pure origin coffee: Mineral characterization, contribution for mineral intake and geographical discrimination

Espresso coffee beverages prepared from pure origin roasted ground coffees from the major world growing regions (Brazil, Ethiopia, Colombia, India, Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Papua New Guinea, Kenya, Cuba, Timor, Mussulo and China) were characterized and compared in terms of their mineral content. Regular consumption of one cup of espresso contributes to a daily mineral intake varying from 0.002% (sodium; Central America) to 8.73% (potassium; Asia). The mineral profiles of the espresso beverages revealed significant inter- and intra-continental differences. South American pure origin coffees are on average richer in the analyzed elements except for calcium, while samples from Central America have generally lower mineral amounts (except for manganese). Manganese displayed significant differences (p < 0.05) among the countries of each characterized continent. Intercontinental and inter-country discrimination between the major world coffee producers were achieved by applying canonical discriminant analysis. Manganese and calcium were found to be the best chemical descriptors for origin.

Morphometric and genetic differentiation among populations of Eupemphix nattereri (Amphibia, Anura, Leiuperidae) from central Brazil

To assess genetic structure and phenotypic diversity of Eupemphix nattereri Steindachner, 1863, morphometric and molecular analyses were carried out for nine populations from the State of Goiás. A total of 11 morphometric traits were evaluated and genetic information was estimated using RAPD markers. Genetic and phenotypic distances were determined as a function of geographical origin. Correlation among genetic, morphometric, micro, and macroenviromental were analyzed by the Mantel test. Genetic data indicated high levels of genetic diversity (Φst= 0.3) among the nine populations. Mantel tests did not reveal a significant positive correlation between genetic and geographical distances, indicating that locally geographical populations were not genetically similar, even in distances smaller than 50 km. Discriminant analysis on 11 morphometric measurements showed a high divergence among the nine populations. However, a marginally significant correlation (P=0.08) between genetic and morphometric distances was found. The observed correlation was not causal in terms of the relationship between phenotype and genotype, but indicated common spatial structures. Thus, our results suggest that isolation-by-distance processes may explain population divergence in Eupemphix nattereri.

Genetic diversity and differentiation processes in the ploidy series of Olea europaea L.: a multiscale approach from subspecies to insular populations.

Geographical isolation and polyploidization are central concepts in plant evolution. The hierarchical organization of archipelagos in this study provides a framework for testing the evolutionary consequences for polyploid taxa and populations occurring in isolation. Using amplified fragment length polymorphism and simple sequence repeat markers, we determined the genetic diversity and differentiation patterns at three levels of geographical isolation in Olea europaea: mainland-archipelagos, islands within an archipelago, and populations within an island. At the subspecies scale, the hexaploid ssp. maroccana (southwest Morocco) exhibited higher genetic diversity than the insular counterparts. In contrast, the tetraploid ssp. cerasiformis (Madeira) displayed values similar to those obtained for the diploid ssp. guanchica (Canary Islands). Geographical isolation was associated with a high genetic differentiation at this scale. In the Canarian archipelago, the stepping-stone model of differentiation suggested in a previous study was partially supported. Within the western lineage, an east-to-west differentiation pattern was confirmed. Conversely, the easternmost populations were more related to the mainland ssp. europaea than to the western guanchica lineage. Genetic diversity across the Canarian archipelago was significantly correlated with the date of the last volcanic activity in the area/island where each population occurs. At the island scale, this pattern was not confirmed in older islands (Tenerife and Madeira), where populations were genetically homogeneous. In contrast, founder effects resulted in low genetic diversity and marked genetic differentiation among populations of the youngest island, La Palma.

Variability and genetic differentiation among Anopheles (Ano.) intermedius Chagas, 1908 and Anopheles (Ano.) mattogrossensis Lutz & Neiva, 1911 (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Brazilian Amazon

Anopheles (Anopheles) intermedius and Anopheles (Ano.) mattogrossensis are Brazilian anopheline species belonging to the scarcely studied Anopheles subgenus. Few studies have been done on the genetic differentiation of these species. Both species have been found infected by Plasmodium and are sympatric with other anopheline species from the Nyssorhynchus subgenus. Eighteen enzymatic loci were analyzed in larval specimens of An. intermedius and An. mattogrossensis aiming to estimate the variability and genetic differentiation between these species. An. mattogrossensis population showed higher genetic variability (P = 44.4 and Ho = 0.081 ± 0.031) than that of An. intermedius (P = 33.3 and Ho = 0.048 ± 0.021). Most analyzed loci showed genotypic frequencies according to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, except for LAP1 and LAP2 in An. intermedius, and EST1 and PGM loci in An. mattogrossensis. The genetic distance between these species (D = 0.683) was consistent with the inter-specific values reported for Anopheles subgenus. We verified that the polymorphism and heterozygosity percentile values found in both species and compared to those in the literature, showed no relation between the level of isozyme variability and geographical distribution. The low variability found in these two species is probably more related to the niche they occupy than to their geographic distribution.