The gender pay gap among university professors: the role of individual and organizational determinants

Cette étude de cas, composée de trois articles, examine les diverses sources d’explication de l’écart salarial selon le genre chez les professeurs d’une grande université de recherche canadienne. Le premier article analyse les écarts selon le genre sur les primes “de marché” à partir de données d’un sondage réalisé auprès des professeurs en 2002. Une analyse des correspondances donne une solution à deux facteurs dans laquelle le second facteur oppose clairement les professeurs qui ont reçu une prime à ceux qui n’en n’ont pas reçue. Le genre est fortement associé à ce facteur, la catégorie “femme” se retrouvant du côté de l’axe associé à l’absence de primes de marché. Les résultats de la régression logistique confirment que le secteur d’activité, la fréquence des contrats de recherche, la valorisation du salaire ainsi que le rang combiné à l’ancienneté sont reliés à la présence de primes de marché, tel que proposé par les hypothèses. Toutefois, même après avoir contrôlé pour ces relations, les femmes sont toujours près de trois fois moins susceptibles de s’être vu attribuer des primes de marché que leurs homologues masculins. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats suggèrent que dans un contexte où les salaires sont déterminés par convention collective, la réindividualisation du processus de détermination des salaires — en particulier le versement de primes de marché aux professeurs d’université — peut favoriser la réapparition d’écarts de salaire selon le genre. Le second article est réalisé à partir de données administratives portant sur les années 1997 à 2006. Les contributions respectives de quatre composantes de la rémunération à l’écart salarial selon le genre y sont analysées, soit le salaire de base, l’accès au rang de professeur titulaire, l’accès aux primes de marché et chaires de recherche du Canada, de même que les montants reçus. Les composantes varient quant à leur degré de formalisation. Ceci permet de tester l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’ampleur de l’écart salarial selon le genre varie en fonction du degré de formalisation des composantes salariales. Nous déterminons également dans quelle mesure l’écart selon le genre sur les diverses composantes de la rémunération varie en fonction de la représentation relative des femmes professeurs au sein des unités. Les résultats démontrent l’existence de variations dans l’ampleur des différences selon le genre en fonction du degré de formalisation des pratiques de rémunération. Qui plus est, après contrôles, la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont fortement représentées. Le dernier article examine les mécanismes pouvant mener à un écart selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché chez les professeurs de l’institution. Les processus d’attribution de ces suppléments salariaux sont examinés à partir d’entretiens réalisés avec 17 administrateurs à tous les niveaux hiérarchiques de l’institution et dans une diversité d’unités académiques. Les résultats suggèrent que les différences selon le genre pourraient être liées à des caractéristiques spécifiques du processus d’attribution et à une distribution inégale des primes aux unités à forte représentation féminine. De façon générale, les résultats démontrent que l’écart de rémunération selon le genre chez les professeurs de cette université n’est pas totalement expliqué par des différences dans les caractéristiques individuelles des hommes et femmes. L’analyse révèle que l’écart réside dans des différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché et aux chaires de recherches du Canada et, dans une moindre mesure, au rang de professeur titulaire. Aucune différence n’est observée sur le salaire de base et le montant des primes salariales reçues, que celles-ci soient dites de “marché” ou associées à une chaire de recherche du Canada. Qui plus est, on constate que la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont le mieux représentées. L’accès différencié selon le genre aux primes de marché qui est observé pourrait être lié à certains processus organisationnels qui limitent les probabilités d’octrois à des femmes. Les femmes pourraient être particulièrement désavantagées dans ce système d’octroi, pour plusieurs raisons. L’existence de différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait aux dispositions ou habiletés des individus à négocier leur salaire est évoquée et supposée par certains administrateurs. Un accès limité aux informations concernant la politique de primes pourrait réduire la probabilité que des femmes tentent d’obtenir ces suppléments salariaux. Les directeurs d’unités, qui sont en majorité des hommes, pourraient être biaisées en faveur des professeurs masculins dans leurs évaluations s’ils tendent à favoriser ceux qui leurs ressemblent. Il est également possible que les directeurs d’unités où les femmes sont les mieux représentées n’aient pas reçu d’information sur les primes de marché ou que des traditions disciplinaires les aient rendu réticents à demander des primes.

O racismo na trajetória escolar e profissional de professoras universitárias

A pesquisa proposta empregou um aporte teórico-metodológico interdisciplinar e enfocou as desigualdades sociais e raciais no percurso escolar e profissional de professoras universitárias. A literatura brasileira consultada na área da Psicologia não fornece exemplares de pesquisas qualitativas sobre desigualdades sociais e raciais, focalizadas no negro e no branco. Nesse contexto, inseriu-se o presente estudo, que objetivou responder às seguintes questões: 1) há indicadores de desigualdades sociais, produzidas estruturalmente, que perpassaram a trajetória escolar e profissional da pessoa socialmente intitulada de preta, de parda e de branca? 2) há indicadores de desigualdades raciais, quando se compara o percurso de vida da pessoa socialmente intitulada de preta e parda com o da pessoa socialmente denominada de branca? Participaram do estudo três professoras universitárias: uma socialmente definida como branca e duas como negras (preta e parda), pós-graduadas e lotadas em diferentes departamentos de uma universidade pública brasileira. Na coleta de informações, empregou-se a entrevista narrativa, um questionário sócio-demográfico e uma lista de complementação de frases. As informações coletadas foram submetidas a tratamento, que as transformaram em dados. A organização dos dados incluiu o processo de categorização. Os resultados mostraram que a pobreza, indicador de desigualdades sociais, fez parte de momentos da trajetória existencial das participantes/informantes, mas, ao se considerar a cor, verifica-se que há uma relação entre grau de pobreza e a cor das mesmas e entre o grau de pobreza e as escolhas dos cursos que as levaram à profissionalização; que a escolarização foi via de profissionalização e de mobilidade social ascendente para as mesmas; que as adversidades, surgidas ao longo do percurso escolar da branca, da preta e da parda foram superadas, com o apoio social de parentes e/ou amigos e com emprego de estratégias pessoais de enfrentamento às dificuldades; que para a preta, o fato de completar o ciclo de estudos, e ser uma profissional qualificada por dois cursos de graduação e um de pós-graduação, não a eximiu de ser objeto do racismo, quer através de manifestações explícitas, quer através de formas camufladas; que o racismo contra o negro, expresso na discriminação direta ou indireta, foi dirigido à preta e à parda, em diferentes momentos dos seus cursos de vida, enquanto a branca foi apenas observadora de interações sociais racializadas, em situações do seu cotidiano; que a escola e a família consolidaram-se como reprodutoras do racismo contra o negro; que a instituição escolar apresentou-se como um espaço social contraditório, porque, apesar de objetivar a formação de cidadãos, promoveu a exclusão social das participantes/ informantes, quando eram crianças pobres e freqüentavam o ensino de primeiro grau, ao colocá-las à margem da participação em atividades recreativas, colaborando na reprodução das desigualdades sociais; que, paradoxalmente, enquanto formadora de cidadãos, a escola apresenta-se como local de materialização do racismo, expresso em interações sociais entre colegas ou entre professora e aluna, independentemente do grau de ensino; que o racismo contra o negro faz parte do processo de (re)construção da subjetividade das participantes/informantes, porém as significações que atribuem a esse fenômeno social diferem, em função dos seus fenótipos e experiências nas relações sociais racializadas; que os seus posicionamentos face ao racismo, e engajamento em movimentos sociais de combate à discriminação racial, relacionam-se ao modo como ele afetou as suas vidas, bem como à visibilidade desse fenômeno, no mundo social e/ou nas suas experiências pessoais; que ser objeto do racismo contra o negro gera singularidades constitutivas do si mesmo e da formação da identidade étnica. Os resultados do estudo poderão contribuir na compreensão de aspectos sócio-psicológicos do racismo, em construções teóricas sobre o tema, na identificação de mecanismos psicossociais de inclusão social excludente do negro, na identificação de mecanismos psicológicos de enfrentamento ao racismo, na elaboração de estratégias de pesquisa sobre o racismo; no fornecimento de subsídios para a elaboração e implementação de programas de combate ao racismo na escola, através de atividades curriculares e extracurriculares.

Un estudio cualitativo sobre los diferenciales de género en la educación superior: percepciones de las académicas en contextos masculinizados

El contexto universitario refleja, al igual que la sociedad en general, la falta de equidad y equilibrio en la representación de mujeres y hombres. En la academia aún encontramos una alta presencia de hombres, especialmente, en lo que respecta a las cátedras universitarias. En este estudio presentamos y analizamos resultados de un proyecto de investigación desarrollado en la Universidad de Alicante (España). Del análisis realizado en los siete centros o unidades académicas de esta universidad, en el que aún las académicas conviven en contextos masculinizados, emergen las diferencias de oportunidades percibidas por las profesoras universitarias en su desarrollo profesional docente e investigador, aunque muchas de ellas no las relacionan con la discriminación por género. Cuando las académicas se han encontrado en situaciones discriminatorias manifiestan una actitud activa y reivindicativa, excepto en los centros altamente masculinizados donde mantienen una actitud pasiva para que el ambiente de trabajo sea óptimo. Consideramos que es necesario continuar indagando en estos espacios donde la presencia de las académicas sigue siendo minoritaria a pesar de las reformas universitarias en materia de igualdad desarrolladas en la Educación Superior.

Postdoktoral karriär vid Stockholms universitet ur ett jämställdhetsperspektiv

Several previous studies indicate that among newly graduated PhDs, women tend to continue with a postdoctoral academic career to a lesser extent than men do. The Central PhD Student Council (CDR) has investigated to what degree this is also the case for Stockholm University. Using various sources, the relative change of the gender balance of PhD students compared to researchers at a postdoctoral level has been assessed at the four faculties of Stockholm University. For the Faculty of Science, the four different sections have been analysed as well. CDR finds that it is first and foremost at this faculty that a clear change in the gender balance between PhD students and postdoctoral researchers is discerned. Even though the variations between the individual departments and sections at the faculty are large, as a whole the relative decrease of the proportion of women is between 11 % and 21 %, depending on what metric is used. The dropoff of female researchers takes place primarily in already male-dominated areas of research. Unlike at the other faculties, we also find that the proportion of female senior lecturers at the Faculty of Science is lower than what could be expected. The proportion of female professors, even among new recruits, is still lower than the population of hypothetical recruits at all faculties – except at the Faculty of Humanities. We do, however, note that the proportion of female professors at the Faculty of Science is currently increasing and approaching that of the population of hypothetical recruits. At the Faculty of Social Sciences we see that, compared to the rest of the faculty, the proportion of women within the educational sciences is considerably higher and when excluding these subjects the trend towards more female professors disappears. CDR concludes that it is important to increase the directed efforts to encourage support to newly graduated female PhDs within male-dominated areas to stay in academia. Furthermore, it is crucial to study the reasons for a larger female drop-off within certain areas of research in the transition from PhD studies to a postdoctoral level. We further consider it important to ensure that women are given the same possibilities as men to qualify themselves scientifically and not be burdened with teaching and administrative duties to a larger extent than men are.

Why are There so Few Female Computer Scientists?

This report examines why women pursue careers in computer science and related fields far less frequently than men do. In 1990, only 13% of PhDs in computer science went to women, and only 7.8% of computer science professors were female. Causes include the different ways in which boys and girls are raised, the stereotypes of female engineers, subtle biases that females face, problems resulting from working in predominantly male environments, and sexual biases in language. A theme of the report is that women's underrepresentation is not primarily due to direct discrimination but to subconscious behavior that perpetuates the status quo.

HIV attitudes and practices among professors in a Brazilian dental school.

Although there is considerable published research on Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), individual biases persist because of lack of information regarding HIV virus transmission. As a result, both infected patients and health care professionals suffer. The objective of this study was to determine if there is prejudice among university professors at the School of Dentistry at Aracatuba's Sao Paulo State University (FOA-UNESP) concerning HIV-positive patients or HIV-positive health care professionals. Out of the seventy-seven professors who responded to the questionnaire, 62.3 percent (forty-eight) stated that they advise their students not to refuse to treat a patient with HIV. Although 96.2 percent (fifty-two) of the fifty-four professors who treat patients have reported that they treat patients who are HIV-positive, only 65.3 percent of them were aware of infection control precautions, and only 32.7 percent reported that they would treat an HIV-positive patient like any other patient. There is also prejudice regarding HIV-positive professionals because only 48.1 percent (thirty-seven) of the professors responded that they would be willing to be treated by an infected professional. It can be concluded that there is prejudice among some of the FOA-UNESP university professors regarding individuals who are HIV-positive.

Growth And Body Composition In Brazilian Female Rhythmic Gymnastics Athletes.

The aim was to analyse the physical growth and body composition of rhythmic gymnastics athletes relative to their level of somatic maturation. This was a cross-sectional study of 136 athletes on 23 teams from Brazil. Mass, standing height and sitting height were measured. Fat-free and fat masses, body fat percentages and ages of the predicted peak height velocity (PHV) were calculated. The z scores for mass were negative during all ages according to both WHO and Brazilian references, and that for standing height were also negative for all ages according to WHO reference but only until 12 years old according to Brazilian reference. The mean age of the predicted PHV was 12.1 years. The mean mass, standing and sitting heights, body fat percentage, fat-free mass and fat mass increased significantly until 4 to 5 years after the age of the PHV. Menarche was reached in only 26% of these athletes and mean age was 13.2 years. The mass was below the national reference standards, and the standing height was below only for the international reference, but they also had late recovery of mass and standing height during puberty. In conclusion, these athletes had a potential to gain mass and standing height several years after PHV, indicating late maturation.

Gastrointestinal Involvement In Lipoid Proteinosis: A Ten-year Follow-up Of A Brazilian Female Patient.

Lipoid proteinosis is a rare autosomal recessive disease characterized by the deposition of hyaline material in the skin and internal organs. The main clinical features are hoarseness and typical skin lesions. In this report we describe the endoscopic and radiologic findings in a Brazilian female patient presenting extensive gastrointestinal involvement and the evolution of the detected lesions in ten years of follow-up. Initial upper endoscopy and colonoscopy showed a similar pattern of multiple yellowish nodules throughout the esophagus, stomach, duodenum, and colons. Histological analysis confirmed the diagnosis of lipoid proteinosis. In addition, small bowel follow through demonstrated numerous well defined, round, small filling defects throughout the jejunum. Ten years later, the esophageal lesions remained the same, but none of the previous alterations were detected in the stomach, duodenum, and colons. In conclusion, lipoid proteinosis may affect all gastrointestinal organs with the same pattern of macroscopic and microscopic lesions. Some lesions may regress with increasing age.

[adherence To Statin Treatment And Associated Factors In Female Users From The Unified Health System (sus)].

To identify the adherence rate of a statin treatment and possible related factors in female users from the Unified Health System. Seventy-one women were evaluated (64.2 ± 11.0 years) regarding the socio-economic level, comorbidities, current medications, level of physical activity, self-report of muscular pain, adherence to the medical prescription, body composition and biochemical profile. The data were analyzed as frequencies, Chi-Squared test, and Mann Whitney test (p<0.05). 15.5% of women did not adhere to the medical prescription for the statin treatment, whose had less comorbidities (p=0.01), consumed less quantities of medications (p=0.00), and tended to be younger (p=0.06). Those patients also presented higher values of lipid profile (CT: p=0.01; LDL-c: p=0.02). Musculoskeletal complains were not associated to the adherence rate to the medication. The associated factors to adherence of dyslipidemic women to statin medical prescription were age, quantity of comorbidities and quantity of current medication.

Chronic Telogen Effluvium And Female Pattern Hair Loss Are Separate And Distinct Forms Of Alopecia: A Histomorphometric And Immunohistochemical Analysis.

Chronic telogen effluvium (CTE), a poorly understood condition, can be confused with or may be a prodrome to female pattern hair loss (FPHL). The pathogenesis of both is related to follicle cycle shortening and possibly to blood supply changes. To analyze a number of histomorphometric and immunohistochemical findings through vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), Ki-67, and CD31 immunostaining in scalp biopsies of 20 patients with CTE, 17 patients with mild FPHL and 9 controls. Ki-67 index and VEGF optical density were analyzed at the follicular outer sheath using ImageJ software. CD31 microvessel density was assessed by a Chalkley grid. Significant follicle miniaturization and higher density of nonanagen follicles were found in FPHL, compared with patients with CTE and controls. Ki-67+ index correlated positively with FPHL histological features. The FPHL group showed the highest VEGF optical density, followed by the CTE and control groups. No differences were found in CD31 microvessel density between the three groups. Histomorphometric results establish CTE as a distinct disorder, separate from FPHL from its outset. Its pathogenic mechanisms are also distinct. These findings support the proposed mechanism of 'immediate telogen release' for CTE, leading to cycle synchronization. For FPHL, accelerated anagen follicular mitotic rates and, thus, higher Ki-67 and VEGF values, would leave less time for differentiation, resulting in hair miniaturization.

Gonadal Hormones Modulate The Responsiveness To Local β-blocker-induced Antinociception In The Temporomandibular Joint Of Male And Female Rats.

We have previously demonstrated that blockade of β-adrenoreceptors (β-AR) located in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) of rats suppresses formalin-induced TMJ nociceptive behaviour in both male and female rats, but female rats are more responsive. In this study, we investigated whether gonadal hormones modulate the responsiveness to local β-blocker-induced antinociception in the TMJ of rats. Co-administration of each of the selective β1 (atenolol), β2 (ICI 118.551) and β3 (SR59230A)-AR antagonists with equi-nociceptive concentrations of formalin in the TMJ of intact, gonadectomized and hormone-treated gonadectomized male and female rats. Atenolol, ICI 118.551 and SR59230A significantly reduced formalin-induced TMJ nociception in a dose response fashion in all groups tested. However, a lower dose of each β-AR antagonist was sufficient to significantly reduce nociceptive responses in gonadectomized but not in intact and testosterone-treated gonadectomized male rats. In the female groups, a lower dose of β1 -AR antagonist was sufficient to significantly reduce nociceptive responses in gonadectomized but not in intact or gonadectomized rats treated with progesterone or a high dose of oestradiol; a lower dose of β2 -AR antagonist was sufficient to significantly reduce nociceptive responses in gonadectomized but not in intact and gonadectomized rats treated with low or high dose of oestradiol. Gonadal hormones may reduce the responsiveness to local β-blocker-induced antinociception in the TMJ of male and female rats. However, their effect depends upon their plasma level, the subtype of β-AR and the dose of β-blockers used.

37-year-old Female With Intraventricular Mass.

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Are skeletally mature female rats a suitable model to study osteoporosis?

OBJECTIVE: To analyze if female Wistar rats at 56 weeks of age are a suitable model to study osteoporosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Female rats with 6 and 36 weeks of age (n = 8 per group) were kept over a 20-week period and fed a diet for mature rodents complete in terms of Ca, phosphorous, and vitamin D. Excised femurs were measured for bone mass using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, morphometry, and biomechanical properties. The following serum mar-kers of bone metabolism were analyzed: parathyroid hormone (PTH), osteocalcin (OC), osteoprotegerin (OPG), receptor activator of nuclear factor Κappa B ligand (RANKL), C-terminal peptides of type I collagen (CTX-I), total calcium, and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity. RESULTS: Rats at 56 weeks of age showed important bone metabolism differences when compared with the younger group, such as, highest diaphysis energy to failure, lowest levels of OC, CTX-I, and ALP, and elevated PTH, even with adequate dietary Ca. CONCLUSION: Rats at 26-week-old rats may be too young to study age-related bone loss, whereas the 56-week-old rats may be good models to represent the early stages of age-related changes in bone metabolism.

Trajetórias de vida : lembranças, caminhos e constituições dos saberes docentes de professores de Educação Física = Paths and trajectories of life : memories, paths and establishment of teaching knowledge of Physical Education Professors

Universidade Estadual de Campinas . Faculdade de Educação Física

Sensitivity to halothane and its relationship to the development of PSE (Pale, Soft, Exudative) meat in female lineage broilers

This work aimed to evaluate female lineage broilers for halothane sensitivity and for their susceptibility to the subsequent development of PSE meat. The halothane test was carried out in an anesthetic chamber with 3.0% halothane. The unconscious birds were examined for leg muscle rigidity. If one or both legs became extended and rigid, the birds were classified as halothane sensitive (HAL+), while unresponsive birds were classified as halothane negative (HAL-). The results showed that of 298 birds aged 42 days old, 95.6% were HAL- and 4.4% were HAL+. A sample of pectoralis major muscle was collected from HAL- (n=105) and HAL+ (n=13) birds. The pH and breast fillet color were determined at 4ºC, 24 hours post-mortem. Interestingly, only 2.5% of HAL+ birds displayed PSE meat characteristics compared to 12.7% of HAL- individuals. The halothane test demonstrated that female lineage broilers displayed very little sensitivity towards halothane, indicating that the development of PSE meat is related to other environmental factors.