Season-Long Examination of the Intervention Tone of Coach-Athlete Interactions and Athlete Development in Youth Sport

Objectives: Coaches are a primary influence on athletes' development in youth sport (Horn, 2008). However, the intervention tone of coaches' behaviour has not been directly observed. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between the intervention tone exhibited by youth sport coaches and athletes' individual developmental trajectories over the course of a season. Design: Short-term longitudinal study with behavioural observation. Method: Fifty-five athletes and their coaches from five youth volleyball teams were observed at three time points, and the intervention tone of interactive behaviour was systematically coded and organized by coach-athlete dyad. Athletes completed measures of the 4C's of athlete development (competence, confidence, connection, character) at each time point, which were used to create individualized developmental trajectories. Person-centred analyses were used to examine associations between athletes' developmental trajectories and their unique interactive experiences with their coach. Results: Cluster analysis revealed the presence of three distinct clusters based on athletes' developmental trajectories: 1) high and increasing, 2) low and decreasing, and 3) moderate and maintaining, with athletes from each team distributed across clusters. Analysis of dyadic interaction profiles revealed significant differences in interactive behaviour between clusters. Conclusions: Results suggest that differences in coach-athlete interactive experiences are associated with different developmental trajectories over the course of a season, even for athletes working with the same coach, highlighting the individualized nature of coaches' influence on young athletes. Practical implications for coaches include a critical awareness of their unique interactive relationship with each athlete independently, as well as the importance of fostering these relationships with regard to young people as more than just athletes.

Season-Long Examination of the Intervention Tone of Coach-Athlete Interactions and Athlete Development in Youth Sport

Objectives: Coaches are a primary influence on athletes' development in youth sport (Horn, 2008). However, the intervention tone of coaches' behaviour has not been directly observed. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between the intervention tone exhibited by youth sport coaches and athletes' individual developmental trajectories over the course of a season. Design: Short-term longitudinal study with behavioural observation. Method: Fifty-five athletes and their coaches from five youth volleyball teams were observed at three time points, and the intervention tone of interactive behaviour was systematically coded and organized by coach-athlete dyad. Athletes completed measures of the 4C's of athlete development (competence, confidence, connection, character) at each time point, which were used to create individualized developmental trajectories. Person-centred analyses were used to examine associations between athletes' developmental trajectories and their unique interactive experiences with their coach. Results: Cluster analysis revealed the presence of three distinct clusters based on athletes' developmental trajectories: 1) high and increasing, 2) low and decreasing, and 3) moderate and maintaining, with athletes from each team distributed across clusters. Analysis of dyadic interaction profiles revealed significant differences in interactive behaviour between clusters. Conclusions: Results suggest that differences in coach-athlete interactive experiences are associated with different developmental trajectories over the course of a season, even for athletes working with the same coach, highlighting the individualized nature of coaches' influence on young athletes. Practical implications for coaches include a critical awareness of their unique interactive relationship with each athlete independently, as well as the importance of fostering these relationships with regard to young people as more than just athletes.

Análisis cualitativo de la relación entrenador-deportista en etapas de formación en baloncesto = Qualitative analysis of the coach-athlete relationship in youth basketball

La relación entrenador-deportista estudia, dentro del ámbito de la psicología social en el deporte, la interacción de los comportamientos, sentimientos y emociones de ambos miembros de la pareja. Se entiende como un proceso en el que antecedentes como la edad, el género o las características esperadas en el otro condicionan el desarrollo de diferentes componentes, los cuales determinan la calidad de la relación, obteniéndose diferentes resultados tanto a nivel deportivo como personal. En la presente tesis se han estudiado 12 relaciones positivas entrenador-deportista en categorías de formación en baloncesto con el objetivo de conocer los condicionantes, componentes, estrategias y resultados de relaciones efectivas. Para ello, se ha realizado un estudio cualitativo, cuya muestra (N=24) se ha seleccionado de manera deliberada discriminando variables como el nivel deportivo del equipo, las características del entrenador, la duración y la calidad de la relación. Las 12 díadas participaban en el máximo nivel de su categoría, tenían una duración mínima de dos temporadas y fueron calificadas como positivas por los entrenadores principales. La investigación se ha llevado a cabo desde la perspectiva holística del fenómeno, teniendo en cuenta tanto el punto de vista del entrenador como el del jugador. Para la recogida de datos se utilizó la entrevista semiestructurada y en profundidad. Los resultados señalan la necesidad de desarrollar estrategias que promuevan y mantengan relaciones de calidad en baloncesto, ya que éstas tienen un alto impacto en el progreso deportivo y personal de los jugadores jóvenes en baloncesto. Entre los condicionantes de la relación entrenador-deportista se ha percibido que las expectativas formadas en los primeros contactos pueden determinar la calidad de la relación. Por otro lado, los componentes dan lugar a resultados como el crecimiento a nivel personal por parte de los jugadores o un mayor rendimiento deportivo, producido en gran medida por la satisfacción y el bienestar psicológico tanto del entrenador como del jugador. Por último, los resultados indican la importancia de adecuar el comportamiento del entrenador a las características propias de los jugadores en cada categoría de formación. ABSTRACT The coach-athlete relationship studies, within the field of social psychology in sport, the interaction of behavior, feelings and emotions in both partners. It is understood as a process in which antecedents such as age, gender or expectations develop different components. The quality of the relationship is determined by these three elements, leading to different results in sport performance as in personal variables. This thesis examined 12 positive coach-athlete rapports in youth basketball teams in order to better understand the determinants, components, strategies and outcomes of effective relationships. A qualitative study has been carried out. The sample (N = 24) is selected deliberately discriminating variables such as the team’s sportive level, coach characteristics, duration and quality of the relationship. Twelve dyads participated at the highest level in its category, had a minimum of two seasons and were rated as positive by head coaches. The research was conducted from a holistic perspective of the phenomenon, taking into account the point of view of both the coach and the player. Indepth semi-structured interview was used for data collection. The results report the need to develop strategies to promote and maintain high quality relationships in basketball, because they have an important impact in sport and personal development of young basketball players. Expectations raised through different impression cues in the first contacts can determine the quality of the relationship. On the other hand, the components lead to results such as players’ personal growth or sport performance, largely produced by the satisfaction and psychological well being of both the coach and the player. Finally, the results indicate the importance of adapting the coach’s behavior to the characteristics of the different stages of young athletes’ development.

Examining the influence of the coach athlete relationship on motivation and performance in female rugby players

The purpose of the study was two-fold; first, the association between interpersonal coaching styles and self-determined motivation was examined, followed by the investigation of the motivation-performance relationship. Participants included 221 female Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS) rugby players, aged sixteen to thirty-three (M= 20.1: SD = 2.26), who reported the number of years they played CIS rugby (M= 2.3: SD = 1.37) and organized rugby (M= 5.9: SD = 2.31). Multiple and bivariate regressions were employed with autonomy-support, structure, and involvement accounting for 17%, 41 % and 22% of the variance of competence, autonomy and relatedness. The three basic needs accounted for 40% of the variance of motivation, and motivation accounted for 2% of the variance of athletes' perceptions of performance. Findings indicated that autonomy-support emerged as a predictor of all three basic needs, involvement predicted relatedness and competence, autonomy predicted motivation, and motivation predicted athletes' perception of performance.

The female coach as a role model for personal growth and development to the female adolescent athlete

Research interest on the topic of female coaches as role models has recently emerged in the coaching literature. Social learning theory (Bandura, 1963; 1977; 1986) has also emerged as an essential framework in explaining learning through modeling. Previous research has examined the coach as a role model, as well as gender differences between coaches. Several authors, with several different conclusions, have studied the significance of gender as an influencer in role modeling. Whitaker and Molstad in 1988 conducted a study focusing on the coach as a role model. What they found was when they combined the results of high school and college aged athletes; the female coach was considered to be a superior role model. The current research used a social learning theory framework to examine the benefits and intricacies of the modeling relationship between female adolescent athletes and influential female coaches. To accomplish this task, the formative experiences of thirteen adolescent female athletes were examined. Each athlete was interviewed, with each semi-structured interview focusing on extracting the salient features of a coach that the athlete identified as being the most influential in her personal development. The data from these interviews were quaHtatively analyzed using case studies. From case studies, a template emerges in which the coach/athlete relationship can be seen as an essential construct in which caring and strong role models can have lasting effects on the lives, values, and successes of adolescent female athletes.

Moving forwards with the aim of going backwards fast : high performance rowing as a learning environment

Background and Purpose: - This paper focuses on the learning culture within the high performance levels of rowing. In doing so, we explore the case of an individual’s learning as he moves across athletic, coaching and administrative functions. This exploration draws on a cultural learning framework and complementary theorisings related to reflexivity. Method - This study makes use of an intellectually, morally and collaboratively challenging approach whereby one member of the research team was also the sole participant of this study. The participant’s careers as a high performance athlete, coach and administrator, coupled with his experience in conducting empirical research presented a rare opportunity to engage in collaborative research (involving degrees of insider and outsider status for each of the research team). We acknowledge that others have looked to combine roles of coach / athlete / administrator with that of researcher however few (if any) have attempted to combine them all in one project. Moreover, coupled with the approach to reflexivity adopted in this study and the authorship contributions we consider this scholarly direction uncommon. Data were comprised of recorded research conversations, a subsequently constructed learning narrative, reflections on the narrative, a stimulated reflective piece from the participant, and a final (re)construction of the participant’s story. Accordingly, data were integrated through an iterative process of thematic analysis. Results - The cultural (i.e., the ways things get done) and structural (e.g., the rules and regulations) properties of high performance rowing were found to shape both the opportunities to be present (e.g., secure a place in the crew) and to learn (e.g., learn the skills required to perform at an Olympic level). However, the individual’s personal properties were brought to bear on re-shaping the constraints such that many limitations could be overcome. In keeping with the theory of learning cultures, the culture of rowing was found to position individuals (a coxswain in this case) differentially. In a similar manner, a range of structural features was found to be important in shaping the cultural and personal elements in performance contexts. For example, the ‘field of play’ was found to be important as a structural feature (i.e., inability of coach to communicate with athletes) in shaping the cultural and personal elements of learning in competition (e.g., positioning the coxswain as an in-boat coach and trusted crewmate). Finally, the cultural and structural elements in rowing appeared to be activated by the participant’s personal elements, most notably his orientation towards quality performance. Conclusion - The participant in this study was found to be driven by the project that he cares about most and at each turn he has bent his understanding of his sport back on itself to see if he can find opportunities to learn and subsequently explore ways to improve performance. The story here emphasises the importance of learner agency, and this is an aspect that has often been missing in recent theorising about learning. In this study, we find an agent using his ‘personal emergent powers to activate the resources in the culture and structure of his sport in an attempt to improve performance. We conclude from this account that this particular high performance rowing culture is one that provided support but nonetheless encouraged those involved, to ‘figure things out’ for themselves – be it as athletes, coaches and/or administrators.

Kasvatus- ja valmennustyylien yhteys juniorijääkiekkoilijoiden suoriutumisstrategioihin, tyytyväisyyteen ja joukkueen koheesioon

This thesis focused on the roles of parenting styles (including parental norm-breaking attitudes and parents perceptions of players coach-athlete relationship), players achievement strategies, perceptions of coaching behaviours, coaches own perceptions, and perceptions of team leaders, in explaining player satisfaction and team cohesion. Five studies based on the same data provided by the Finnish Ice Hockey Association (FIHA) were carried out. The sample sizes were as follows: players, 1,018; parents, 979; coaches, 35; and team leaders, 57. Questionnaires and self-report questionnaires were used to collect data. The results revealed that: (1) family-parenting styles provided a basis for adolescents achievement strategies and influenced whether the sons played fairly or engaged in rule breaking. Democratic parenting was associated with the adolescents high level of mastery-oriented behaviour, low level of task-irrelevant behaviour, and low level of norm-breaking behaviour. The adaptive achievement strategies enhanced player satisfaction. (2) Democratic parenting styles influenced parents perception of the coach-athlete relationship, which was further associated with a coaching style that also influenced how the child experienced his own cohesion within the team. (3) The adolescents tended to reflect the similarity in leadership behaviours between home and sport from both democratic and autocratic backgrounds. In particular, the compensating combination of non-demanding styles at home and a high level of support by a positive coach was associated with high team cohesion. (4) The stress factor changed the dynamics of the parenting behaviour. (5) Players ratings, coaches ratings, and the ratings of team leaders all differed upon coaching behaviours and team cohesion. Only the players ratings were associated with cohesion high with positive coaching and low with autocratic coaching. The developmental age and the long-lasting membership on an ice hockey team made positive coaching acceptable for all players. Sixteen year-olds from all families rated high team cohesion with positive coaching. Parenting styles were associated with adolescent ice hockey players achievement strategies, norm breaking, and satisfaction. The combination of parenting and coaching was associated with cohesion rated by players. The staff s experiences of coaching and its effects on cohesion differed from the players experiences. These results contribute to understanding links between parenting styles, achievement strategies, norm breaking, and satisfaction, as well as parenting styles, coaching behaviour and cohesion. This work has importance for parents, coaches, sport organizations, and teachers.

Empatia e treinadores esportivos brasileiros: um estudo exploratório

A empatia é considerada uma característica humana que se constrói na relação entre as pessoas e está envolvida no estabelecimento de relacionamentos e interações sociais de qualidade. O termo empatia é usado para descrever sentimentos, expressões e comportamentos que qualificam o indivíduo a reconhecer, perceber e responder apropriadamente aos estados emocionais dos outros. A psicologia estuda a empatia em diversos contextos e em diferentes perspectivas teóricas. Entre essas correntes teóricas, a psicologia evolucionista, que embasa esse estudo, compreende a empatia como sendo uma habilidade evolutivamente importante para a sobrevivência da espécie humana ao aumentar a coesão grupal e para manutenção dos relacionamentos sociais. Particularmente, no contexto esportivo o estudo da empatia entre treinadores e atletas, em comparação com outras áreas da psicologia (como aconselhamento, terapia e educação), quase não existe, principalmente com treinadores brasileiros. Nesse sentido, o objetivo desse estudo foi investigar a empatia em treinadores esportivos brasileiros. Para responder a este propósito foi realizada uma pesquisa descritiva e correlacional. Os dados foram obtidos de um total de cem treinadores que responderam ao Inventário de Empatia (IE) (Falcone et a.l, 2008), ao Questionário de Empatia no Contexto Esportivo (QECE) e ao Questionário de informações sociodemográficas. Os dados descritivos apontam que os treinadores participantes tinham idade média de 37,05 anos (DP = 8,27) e atuavam em média há 12,19 anos (DP = 8,52). Foram realizados Teste t de Student, com os dados coletados por meio do IE, e Qui-quadrado, com os dados coletados pelo QECE. Esses testes de comparações de médicas possibilitaram identificar os efeitos independentes das variáveis explicativas (ex-atleta, nível competitivo, categoria, nível de experiência, grau de instrução e sexo) sobre os escores do IE e do QECE. Houve diferença significativa para o fator TP (p = 0,044) e a variável ex-atleta, sendo o grupo de treinadores que não foram ex-atletas os que tiveram maior média nesse fator. Existiu diferença significativa para o fator sensibilidade afetiva (p = 0,019) e a variável experiência, sendo que a maior média encontrada está para os respondentes com pouca experiência. No fator Flexibilidade Interpessoal com relação à variável nível competitivo, houve diferença significativa (p= 0,038) sendo a maior média para treinadores da iniciação esportiva. Em síntese, esse estudo indica que treinadores que não foram atletas no passado têm maior possibilidade de compreender e atender as exigências dos atletas, treinadores menos experientes tendem a ter maior preocupação ou consideração pelas necessidades dos outros e uma tendência a agir de acordo com essas necessidades do que treinadores mais experientes e treinadores que atuam na iniciação esportiva demonstraram ter mais facilidade em aceitar pontos de vista diferentes do que treinadores do alto rendimento. Conclui-se que o fato do treinador ter sido atleta, a experiência e o nível competitivo contribuem de modo diferenciado na empatia dos treinadores, denominada de empatia esportiva que se desenvolve na ambivalência do contexto esportivo e mostra-se importante na relação treinador e atleta

Investigation into the Motivation Strategies of the Elite ITU Triathlon Coaches

The purpose of this study was to identify elite triathlon coaches’ beliefs and practices as they pertain to motivating world-class triathletes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with four elite triathlon coaches operating out of three different training groups. Furthermore, the athletes within these groups completed questionnaires assessing their motivational profiles, basic psychological needs, and perceived autonomy support. The interviews were analyzed deductively according to the Motivational Model of the Coach-Athlete Relationship (Mageau & Vallerland, 2003). The data revealed that coaches predominantly used an autonomy-supportive coaching style while also providing structure and involvement. The coaches emphasized an individualized approach for each athlete to best meet their needs. Athletes’ responses to the questionnaires provide support for the coaches’ philosophies and perceived behaviours. The findings of this study provide valuable direction for elite and developing coaches looking to enhance their communication skills in order to optimize athlete needs and motivation.

La rétroaction négative optimale en sport : étude de l’impact relatif de la quantité et de la qualité

Plusieurs études se sont intéressées aux conséquences des comportements adoptés par les entraîneurs. Un comportement n’a cependant pas reçu l’attention méritée : la rétroaction négative. Pourtant, cette rétroaction est à la fois essentielle aux progrès et porteuse de conséquences négatives potentielles (Brewer, et al. 1991; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Le présent mémoire propose que la qualité de la rétroaction négative est déterminante dans les conséquences vécues par les athlètes. Une étude corrélationnelle a été menée auprès de 315 athlètes et 54 entraîneurs. Des analyses multiniveaux ont confirmé qu’une rétroaction négative de qualité doit soutenir l’autonomie des athlètes, et six caractéristiques définissant une telle rétroaction ont été identifiées. Il a aussi été démontré que la qualité de la rétroaction négative prédit l’expérience phénoménologique et les performances des athlètes au-delà de la quantité de rétroaction et du style interpersonnel de l’entraîneur. Les implications théoriques et pratiques de ces résultats sont discutées.

Décrire la nature de la relation entraîneur-athlète entre des entraîneurs masculins et leurs équipes de volleyball féminin de différents niveaux de compétition

But : Ce projet de recherche a comme objectif principal de mieux comprendre diverses facettes de la relation entraîneur-entrainée. Cette relation entre un entraîneur masculin et une athlète féminine en volleyball sera observée selon trois niveaux de compétition des athlètes – secondaire, collégial et universitaire. Trois aspects seront étudiés à travers les questions posées dans cette recherche : (1) Est-ce que la perception que les athlètes ont de la relation entraîneur-entraîné est différente selon le niveau de compétition de l’athlète? (2) Existe-il des différences dans la nature de la relation à l’intérieur d’un même niveau? (3) Est-ce que le nombre d’années qu’une athlète a passé avec le même entraîneur affecte la qualité de la relation?. Méthodologie : Évoluant sur le circuit québécois, les six équipes de volleyball et leur entraîneur respectif représentent l’échantillon de la présente étude. Les tests utilisés afin de réaliser les analyses univariées et bivariées de cette étude sont : le Test de Welch, les corrélations de Pearson ainsi que les tests post-hoc de Games-Howell. Résultats : (1) Les athlètes du secondaire partagent une relation de meilleure qualité avec leur entraîneur que celles du cégep et de l’université. (2) Dans un même niveau de compétition, ce qui différencie la qualité de la relation est : le rôle de la joueuse dans son équipe ainsi que le nombre de sports organisés dans lesquels elle participe (relations proportionnelles). (3) Une relation inverse existe entre le nombre d’années vécues par la dyade entraîneur-athlète et la qualité de la relation.

Vers une meilleure compréhension de la rétroaction orientée vers le changement : observation objective, variations quotidiennes et déterminants en contexte sportif

Une étude récente a démontré qu’une rétroaction orientée vers le changement (ROC) qui est empathique, accompagnée de choix de solutions et de trucs, basée sur des objectifs clairs et atteignables, exempte d’énoncés portant sur la personne et donnée sur un ton respectueux, contribue à soutenir l’autonomie des athlètes (Carpentier & Mageau, 2013). À travers trois articles scientifiques, cette thèse vise à (1) démontrer qu’une telle ROC, offerte en situation réelle d’entrainement, soutient l’autonomie, (2) mieux comprendre ses impacts et (3) explorer ses déterminants. Alors que les études précédentes ont utilisé les perceptions des athlètes afin de définir une ROC soutenant l’autonomie et d’évaluer ses conséquences, l’article 1 utilise le codage de vidéos. La qualité et la quantité de ROC donnée par 53 entraineurs ont été codées et leurs 310 athlètes ont rapporté leurs perceptions d’autonomie. Les résultats soutiennent les résultats d’études passées en démontrant qu’une ROC caractérisée par les six dimensions proposées par Carpentier et Mageau (2013) favorise l’autonomie. À l’opposé, la quantité de ROC est négativement liée à l’autonomie. L’article 2 vise à mieux comprendre les impacts de la ROC en s’intéressant aux variations intra-individuelles. Quarante-neuf athlètes ont complété, immédiatement après 15 entrainements (N = 534), un questionnaire évaluant la ROC reçue au cours de l’entrainement et diverses conséquences situationnelles. Des analyses multiniveaux démontrent que la qualité de la ROC est positivement liée à la qualité de l’expérience de l’athlète. À l’opposé, la quantité de ROC est négativement liée à la motivation autonome et au besoin de compétence. Finalement, l’article 3 s’intéresse à la passion des entraineurs ainsi qu’à leur perception de la motivation de leurs athlètes en tant que déterminants de la qualité et de la quantité de ROC donnée. Au total, 280 athlètes et 48 entraineurs ont rempli un questionnaire. Les résultats démontrent que plus les entraineurs ont une passion obsessive, moins leur ROC soutient l’autonomie des athlètes. Aussi, plus les entraineurs ont une passion obsessive et plus ils perçoivent leurs athlètes comme étant motivés, plus ils donnent de la ROC. Cette thèse contribue à l’avancement des connaissances sur la ROC, à la théorie de l’autodétermination, et à la formation des entraineurs.

Climas motivacionales, liderazgo y cohesión grupal en contexto deportivo universitario

Objetivos: Conocer las interacciones entrenador-atleta y comprender las practicas de liderazgo, de generación de climas motivacionales y de comunicación entre líderes deportivos y jugadores. Metodología: Metodología de cohorte mixto. Se realizó correlación de variables cuantitativas y se analizaron las experiencias y los sentidos del contexto deportivo con una aproximación cualitativa. Se aplicaron a 31 deportistas universitarios los instrumentos: Clima Motivacional Percibido en el Deporte (PMCSQ-2), Clima en el Deporte (SCQ) y Orientación al Ego y a la Tarea en el Deporte. Para profundizar la información obtenida, se realizaron entrevistas semi-estructuradas a 6 deportistas y 2 entrenadores universitarios. RESULTADOS: Que el deportista sienta confianza en su entrenador se encuentra asociado a que se sienta comprendido y aceptado por él. Que el entrenador genere un clima motivacional orientado hacia el ego está relacionado con que los deportistas tengan orientaciones de meta ego. Los entrenadores utilizan dos estilos de liderazgo opuestos: liderazgo democrático (entrenamientos) y liderazgo autocrático (competiciones) Conclusiones: Cuando el atleta confía en la persona que lo dirige deportivamente, presenta mayor satisfacción deportiva. También, que el entrenador fomente un ambiente de comparación social propicia que los deportistas rivalicen con compañeros de equipo y basen su rendimiento en resultados deportivos obtenidos