Erythropoietin for the Repair of Cerebral Injury in Very Preterm Infants (EpoRepair).

BACKGROUND Preterm infants suffering from intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) are at increased risk for neurodevelopmental impairment. Observational data suggest that recombinant human erythropoietin (rEPO) improves long-term cognitive outcome in infants with IVH. Recent studies revealed a beneficial effect of early high-dose rEPO on white matter development in preterm infants determined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). OBJECTIVES To summarize the current evidence and to delineate the study protocol of the EpoRepair trial (Erythropoietin for the Repair of Cerebral Injury in Very Preterm Infants). METHODS The study involves a review of the literature and the design of a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial of repetitive high-dose rEPO administration, enrolling 120 very preterm infants with moderate-to-severe IVH diagnosed by cranial ultrasound in the first days of life, qualitative and quantitative MRI at term-equivalent age and long-term neurodevelopmental follow-up until 5 years of age. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The hypothesis generated by observational data that rEPO may improve long-term cognitive outcomes of preterm infants suffering from IVH are to be confirmed or refuted by the randomized controlled trial, EpoRepair.

Cerebroprotective activity of Wedelia calendulacea on global cerebral ischemia in rats

The present study was to investigate the effect of W. calendulacea on ischemia and reperfusion-induced cerebral injury. Cerebral ischemia was induced by occluding right and left common carotid arteries (global cerebral ischemia) for 30 min followed by reperfusion for 1 h and 4 h individually. Various biochemical alterations, produced subsequent to the application of bilateral carotid artery occlusion (BCAO) followed by reperfusion viz. increase in lipid peroxidation (LPO), hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), and decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), level in the brain tissue, Western blot analysis (Cu-Zn-SOD and CAT) and assessment of cerebral infarct size were measured. All those enzymes are markedly reversed and restored to near normal level in the groups pre-treated with W. calendulacea (250 and 500 mg/kg given orally in single and double dose/day for 10 days) in dose-dependent way. The effect of W. calendulacea had increased significantly the protein expression of copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu-Zn-SOD) and CAT in cerebral ischemia. W. claendulacea was markedly decrease cerebral infarct damages but results are not statistically significant. It can be concluded that W. calendulacea possesses a neuroprotective activity against cerebral ischemia in rat.

Metabolismo da glicose cerebral no trauma crânio-encefálico: uma avaliação

Os autores apresentam revisão geral da distribuição e metabolização da glicose, com ênfase para os distúrbios que ocorrem no trauma crânio-encefálico, como a hiperglicemia que ocorre na fase aguda. Finalizando, são feitos comentários sobre as possíveis conseqüências desses conhecimentos sobre os procedimentos atuais, que aconselham a restrição na oferta de glicose a pacientes com catabolismo acentuado e que necessitam poupar o contingente de proteína corporal.

Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest : Studies on neurological and cardiological outcome and prediction of outcome in hypothermia-treated patients resuscitated from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest

The outcome of the successfully resuscitated patient is mainly determined by the extent of hypoxic-ischemic cerebral injury, and hypothermia has multiple mechanisms of action in mitigating such injury. The present study was undertaken from 1997 to 2001 in Helsinki as a part of the European multicenter study Hypothermia after cardiac arrest (HACA) to test the neuroprotective effect of therapeutic hypothermia in patients resuscitated from out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation (VF) cardiac arrest (CA). The aim of this substudy was to examine the neurological and cardiological outcome of these patients, and especially to study and develop methods for prediction of outcome in the hypothermia-treated patients. A total of 275 patients were randomized to the HACA trial in Europe. In Helsinki, 70 patients were enrolled in the study according to the inclusion criteria. Those randomized to hypothermia were actively cooled externally to a core temperature 33 ± 1ºC for 24 hours with a cooling device. Serum markers of ischemic neuronal injury, NSE and S-100B, were sampled at 24, 36, and 48 hours after CA. Somatosensory and brain stem auditory evoked potentials (SEPs and BAEPs) were recorded 24 to 28 hours after CA; 24-hour ambulatory electrocardiography recordings were performed three times during the first two weeks and arrhythmias and heart rate variability (HRV) were analyzed from the tapes. The clinical outcome was assessed 3 and 6 months after CA. Neuropsychological examinations were performed on the conscious survivors 3 months after the CA. Quantitative electroencephalography (Q-EEG) and auditory P300 event-related potentials were studied at the same time-point. Therapeutic hypothermia of 33ºC for 24 hours led to an increased chance of good neurological outcome and survival after out-of-hospital VF CA. In the HACA study, 55% of hypothermia-treated patients and 39% of normothermia-treated patients reached a good neurological outcome (p=0.009) at 6 months after CA. Use of therapeutic hypothermia was not associated with any increase in clinically significant arrhythmias. The levels of serum NSE, but not the levels of S-100B, were lower in hypothermia- than in normothermia-treated patients. A decrease in NSE values between 24 and 48 hours was associated with good outcome at 6 months after CA. Decreasing levels of serum NSE but not of S-100B over time may indicate selective attenuation of delayed neuronal death by therapeutic hypothermia, and the time-course of serum NSE between 24 and 48 hours after CA may help in clinical decision-making. In SEP recordings bilaterally absent N20 responses predicted permanent coma with a specificity of 100% in both treatment arms. Recording of BAEPs provided no additional benefit in outcome prediction. Preserved 24- to 48-hour HRV may be a predictor of favorable outcome in CA patients treated with hypothermia. At 3 months after CA, no differences appeared in any cognitive functions between the two groups: 67% of patients in the hypothermia and 44% patients in the normothermia group were cognitively intact or had only very mild impairment. No significant differences emerged in any of the Q-EEG parameters between the two groups. The amplitude of P300 potential was significantly higher in the hypothermia-treated group. These results give further support to the use of therapeutic hypothermia in patients with sudden out-of-hospital CA.

Impact d’un épisode asphyxique périnatal associé à des convulsions sur le développement des interneurones corticaux : rôle de l’adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)

L’encéphalopathie hypoxique-­‐ischémique cause des milliers de victimes à travers le monde chaque année. Les enfants survivants à un épisode hypoxique-­‐ischémique sont à risque de développer des problèmes neurologiques incapacitants comme une paralysie cérébrale, un retard mental, une épilepsie ou des troubles d’ordre comportemental. Les modèles animaux ont amélioré nos connaissances sur les mécanismes sous-­‐jacents aux dommages cérébraux, mais elles sont encore trop incomplètes pour être capables de prévenir les problèmes neurologiques. Ce projet vise à comprendre l’impact d’un épisode asphyxique périnatale associé à des convulsions ainsi que l’activation de l’adenosine monophosphate-­‐activated protein kinase (AMPK) sur les circuits GABAergiques inhibiteurs en développement chez la souris. Dans le but d’investiguer le sort des neurones inhibiteurs, appelés interneurones, suite à un épisode asphyxique périnatal associé à des convulsions avec des animaux transgéniques, nous avons pris avantage d’un nouveau modèle d’hypoxie permettant d’induire des convulsions chez la souris. Deux populations d’interneurones représentant ensemble environ 60% de tous les interneurones corticaux ont été étudiées, soit les cellules exprimant la parvalbumine (PV) et les cellules exprimant la somatostatine (SOM). L’étude stéréologique n’a montré aucune mort neuronale de ces deux populations d’interneurones dans l’hippocampe chez les souris hypoxique d’âge adulte. Par contre, le cortex des souris hypoxiques présentait des zones complètement ou fortement dépourvues de cellules PV alors que les cellules SOM n’étaient pas affectées. L’utilisation d’une lignée de souris transgénique exprimant une protéine verte fluorescente (GFP) dans les cellules PV nous a permis de comprendre que les trous PV sont le reflet de deux choses : 1) une diminution des cellules PV et 2) une immaturité des cellules PV restantes. Puisque les cellules PV sont spécifiquement affectées dans la première partie de notre étude, nous avons voulu étudier les mécanismes moléculaires sous-­‐jacents à cette vulnérabilité. L’AMPK est un senseur d’énergie qui orchestre le rétablissement des i niveaux d’énergie cellulaire dans le cas d’une déplétion énergétique en modulant des voies de signalisation impliquant la synthèse de protéines et l’excitabilité membranaire. Il est possible que l’activation d’AMPK suite à un épisode asphyxique périnatal associé à des convulsions soit néfaste à long-­‐terme pour le circuit GABAergique en développement et modifie l’établissement de l’innervation périsomatique d’une cellule PV sur les cellules pyramidales. Nous avons étudié cette hypothèse dans un modèle de culture organotypique en surexprimant la forme wild-­‐type (WT) de la sous-­‐unité α2 d’AMPK, ainsi qu’une forme mutée dominante négative (DN), dans des cellules PV individuelles. Nous avons montré que pendant la phase de formation synaptique (jours post-­‐natals équivalents EP 10-­‐18), la surexpression de la forme WT désorganise la stabilisation des synapses. De plus, l’abolition de l’activité d’AMPK semble augmenter le nombre de synapses périsomatiques faits par la cellule PV sur les cellules pyramidales pendant la phase de formation et semble avoir l’effet inverse pendant la phase de maturation (EP 16-­‐24). La neurotransmission GABAergique joue plusieurs rôles dans le cerveau, depuis la naissance jusqu’à l’âge adulte des interneurones, et une dysfonction des interneurones a été associée à plusieurs troubles neurologiques, comme la schizophrénie, l’autisme et l’épilepsie. La maturation des circuits GABAergiques se fait majoritairement pendant la période post-­‐natale et est hautement dépendante de l’activité neuronale et de l’expérience sensorielle. Nos résultats révèlent que le lourd fardeau en demande énergétique d’un épisode asphyxique périnatal peut causer une mort neuronale sélective des cellules PV et compromettre l’intégrité de leur maturation. Un des mécanismes sous-­‐ jacents possible à cette immaturité des cellules PV suite à l’épisode hypoxique est l’activation d’AMPK, en désorganisant leur profil d’innervation sur les cellules pyramidales. Nous pensons que ces changements dans le réseau GABAergique pourrait contribuer aux problèmes neurologiques associés à une insulte hypoxique.

Soluciones hipertónicas en trauma craneoencefálico: revisión sistemática de la literatura

El traumatismo craneoencefálico, es la epidemia silenciosa de nuestra época, que genera gastos en salud, en países como Estados Unidos, cercanos a los 60 billones de dólares anuales, y cerca de 400 billones en rehabilitación de los discapacitados. El pilar del manejo médico del trauma craneoencefálico moderado o severo, es la osmoterapia, principalmente con sustancias como el manitol y las soluciones hipertónicas. Se realizó la revisión de 14 bases de datos, encontrando 4657754 artículos, quedando al final 40 artículos después de un análisis exhaustivo, que se relacionaban con el manejo de la hipertensión endocraneana y terapia osmótica. Resultados: Se compararon diferentes estudios, encontrando gran variabilidad estos, sin homogenización en los análisis estadísticos, y la poca rigurosidad no permitieron, la recolección de datos y la comparación entre los diferentes estudios, no permitió realizar el meta-análisis y por esto se decidió la realización de una revisión sistemática de la literatura. Se evidenció principalmente tres cosas: la primera es la poca rigurosidad con la que se realizan los estudios clínicos; la segunda, es que aún falta mucha más investigación principalmente, la presencia de estudios clínicos aleatorizados multicéntricos, que logren dar una sólida evidencia y que genere validez científica que se requiere, a pesar de la evidencia clara en la práctica clínica; la tercera es la seguridad para su uso, con poca presencia de complicaciones para las soluciones salinas hipertónicas.

The effect of selective decontamination of the digestive tract on mortality in multiple trauma patients: a multicenter randomized controlled trial

Objective: Evaluation of selective decontamination of the digestive tract (SDD) on late mortality in ventilated trauma patients in an intensive care unit (ICU). Methods: A multicenter, randomized controlled trial was undertaken in 401 trauma patients with Hospital Trauma Index-Injury Severity Score of 16 or higher. Patients were randomized to control (n = 200) or SDD (n = 201), using polymyxin E, tobramycin, and amphotericin B in throat and gut throughout ICU treatment combined with cefotaxime for 4 days. Primary endpoint was late mortality excluding early death from hemorrhage or craniocerebral injury. Secondary endpoints were infection and organ dysfunction. Results: Mortality was 20.9% with SDD and 22.0% in controls. Overall late mortality was 15.3% (57/372) as 29 patients died from cerebral injury, 16 SDD and 13 control. The odds ratio (95% confidence intervals) of late mortality for SDD relative to control was 0.75 (0.40-1.37), corresponding to estimates of 13.4% SDD and 17.2% control. The overall infection rate was reduced in the test group (48.8% vs. 61.0%). SDD reduced lower airway infections (30.9% vs. 50.0%) and bloodstream infections due to aerobic Gram-negative bacilli (2.5% vs. 7.5%). No difference in organ dysfunction was found. Concluson: This study demonstrates that SDD significantly reduces infection in multiple trauma, although this RCT in 401 patients was underpowered to detect a mortality benefit.

Significato prognostico dell'ecografia cerebrale nei neonati con infezione congenita da citomegalovirus

Background: Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection may lead to cerebral injury and neurodevelopmental delay. Cranial computed tomography (CT) is currently the standard imaging technique for predicting the outcome of CMV infected patients. Ultrasound (US) is a safe means to assess the extent of cerebral injury due to CMV infection in neonates, and unlike CT, is readily available at the bedside. Aim: To report the accuracy of US in predicting neurodevelopmental and sensorineural outcome in patients with congenital CMV infection. Study design: 57 newborns with congenital CMV infection underwent brain US and were followed prospectively for motor skills, developmental quotient and hearing function. Results: An abnormal US was found in 12/57 newborns. At least one sequela (Developmental Quotient < 85, motor delay, sensorineural hearing loss) was present in 10/11 surviving children with abnormal US (1 patient died in the neonatal period) vs 3/45 newborns with normal US (OR for death or poor outcome: 154, CI 17.3-1219.6, p<0.001, positive predictive value 91.7%, negative predictive value 93.3%). Conclusion: A good correlation is shown between ultrasound abnormalities and the prediction of outcome, suggesting that US may be used to study and follow CMV infected neonates. Our findings await confirmation in a larger population.

Evaluation of cardiovascular disease markers in patients submitted to carotid artery stenting or endarterectomy

Introduction. Microembolization during the carotid artery revascularization procedure may cause cerebral lesions. Elevated C-Reactive Protein (hsCRP), Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and serum amyloid A protein (SAA) exert inflammatory activities thus promoting carotid plaque instability. Neuron specific enolase (NSE) is considered a marker of cerebral injury. Neoangiogenesis represents a crucial step in atherosclerosis, since neovessels density correlates with plaque destabilization. However their clinical significance on the outcome of revascularization is unknown. This study aims to establish the correlation between palque vulnerabilty, embolization and histological or serological markers of inflammation and neoangiogenesis. Methods. Serum hsCRP, SAA, VEGF, NSE mRNA, PAPP-A mRNA levels were evaluated in patients with symptomatic carotid stenosis who underwent filter-protected CAS or CEA procedure. Cerebral embolization, presence of neurologicals symptoms, plaque neovascularization were evaluated testing imaging, serological and histological methods. Results were compared by Fisher’s, Student T test and Mann-Whitney U test. Results. Patients with hsCRP<5 mg/l, SAA<10mg/L and VEGF<500pg/ml had a mean PO of 21.5% versus 35.3% (p<0.05). In either group, embolic material captured by the filter was identified as atherosclerotic plaque fragments. Cerebral lesions increased significantly in all patients with hsCRP>5mg/l and SAA>10mg/l (16.5 vs 2.8 mean number, 3564.6 vs 417.6 mm3 mean volume). Discussion. High hsCRP, SAA and VEGF levels are associated with significantly greater embolization during CAS and to the vulnerabiliy of the plaque. This data suggest CAS might not be indicated as a method of revascularization in this specific group of patients.

Valutazione dei disturbi cognitivi nei pazienti sottoposti a Rivascolarizzazione Carotidea (Endoarterectomia vs Stenting) mediante dosaggio di marker di danno neuronale, Mini Mental State Examination e Risonanza Magnetica

Scopo del nostro studio è quello di valutare i disturbi cognitivi in relazione al tasso di microembolia cerebrale in due gruppi di pazienti trattati per lesione carotidea asintomatica con endoarterectomia (CEA) o stenting (CAS). Comparando le due metodiche mediante l’utilizzo di risonanza magnetica in diffusione (DW-MRI), neuromarkers (NSE e S100β) e test neuropsicometrici. MATERIALE E METODI: 60 pazienti sono stati sottoposti a rivascolarizzazione carotidea (CEA n=32 e CAS n=28). Sono stati tutti valutati con DW-MRI e Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) test nel preoperatorio, a 24 ore, a 6 ed a 12 mesi dall’intervento. In tutti sono stati dosati i livelli sierici di NSE e S100β mediante 5 prelievi seriati nel tempo, quello basale nel preoperatorio, l’ultimo a 24 ore. L’ananlisi statistica è stata effettuata con test t di Student per confronti multipli per valori continui e con test χ2 quadro e Fisher per le variabili categoriche. Significatività P <0,05. RISULTATI: Non vi è stato alcun decesso. Un paziente del gruppo CAS ha presentato un ictus ischemico. In 6 pazienti CAS ed in 1 paziente CEA si sono osservate nuove lesioni subcliniche alla RMN-DWI post-operatoria (21,4% vs 3% p=0,03). Nel gruppo CAS le nuove lesioni presenti alla RMN sono risultate significativamente associate ad un declino del punteggio del MMSE (p=0,001). L’analisi dei livelli di NSE e S100β ha mostrato un significativo aumento a 24 ore nei pazienti CAS (P = .02). A 12 mesi i pazienti che avevano presentato nuove lesioni ischemiche nel post-operatorio hanno mostrato minor punteggio al MMSE, non statisticamente significativo. CONCLUSIONI: I neuromarkers in combinazione con MMSE e RMN-DWI possono essere utilizzati nella valutazione del declino cognitivo correlato a lesioni silenti nell’immediato postoperatorio di rivascolarizzazione carotidea. Quest’ultime dovrebbero essere valutate quindi non solo rispetto al tasso di mortalità e ictus, ma anche rispetto al tasso di microembolia.

Pontosubicular apoptosis ("necrosis") in human neonates with intrauterine growth retardation and placental infarction

In a previous study of 37 autopsied stillbirths with non-dysmorphic intrauterine growth retardation ( IUGR), 26 cases were associated with placental infarction, a morphologic marker of uteroplacental insufficiency. Nine of the 26 cases with both IUGR and placental infarction, where archival tissue was available, had grey matter ischaemic lesions that were subsequently identified as pontosubicular necrosis. This lesion is now regarded as a localized form of apoptosis. A further eight third trimester stillbirth cases with both IUGR and placental infarction were ascertained prospectively. Sixteen of these 17 cases showed pontosubicular apoptosis, identified morphologically and verified using activated caspase-3 and TUNEL. Five of the 17 cases showed apoptosis in the frontal or temporal cortex as well. In this current study, pontosubicular apoptosis was strongly associated with IUGR and placental infarction in third trimester stillborns, suggesting that uteroplacental insufficiency leading to chronic fetal hypoxaemia may cause cerebral apoptosis.

Inhibition of Rho-kinase protects cerebral barrier from ischaemia-evoked injury through modulations of endothelial cell oxidative stress and tight junctions

Ischaemic strokes evoke blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption and oedema formation through a series of mechanisms involving Rho-kinase activation. Using an animal model of human focal cerebral ischaemia, this study assessed and confirmed the therapeutic potential of Rho-kinase inhibition during the acute phase of stroke by displaying significantly improved functional outcome and reduced cerebral lesion and oedema volumes in fasudil- versus vehicle-treated animals. Analyses of ipsilateral and contralateral brain samples obtained from mice treated with vehicle or fasudil at the onset of reperfusion plus 4 h post-ischaemia or 4 h post-ischaemia alone revealed these benefits to be independent of changes in the activity and expressions of oxidative stress- and tight junction-related parameters. However, closer scrutiny of the same parameters in brain microvascular endothelial cells subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation ± reperfusion revealed marked increases in prooxidant NADPH oxidase enzyme activity, superoxide anion release and in expressions of antioxidant enzyme catalase and tight junction protein claudin-5. Cotreatment of cells with Y-27632 prevented all of these changes and protected in vitro barrier integrity and function. These findings suggest that inhibition of Rho-kinase after acute ischaemic attacks improves cerebral integrity and function through regulation of endothelial cell oxidative stress and reorganization of intercellular junctions. Inhibition of Rho-kinase (ROCK) activity in a mouse model of human ischaemic stroke significantly improved functional outcome while reducing cerebral lesion and oedema volumes compared to vehicle-treated counterparts. Studies conducted with brain microvascular endothelial cells exposed to OGD ± R in the presence of Y-27632 revealed restoration of intercellular junctions and suppression of prooxidant NADPH oxidase activity as important factors in ROCK inhibition-mediated BBB protection.

Phenylephrine-induced hypertension during transient middle cerebral artery occlusion alleviates ischemic brain injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Arterial hypertension is a major risk factor for ischemic stroke. However, the management of preexisting hypertension is still controversial in the treatment of acute stroke in hypertensive patients. The present study evaluates the influence of preserving hypertension during focal cerebral ischemia on stroke outcome in a rat model of chronic hypertension, the spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Focal cerebral ischemia was induced by transient (1 h) occlusion of the middle cerebral artery, during which mean arterial blood pressure was maintained at normotension (110-120 mm Hg, group 1, n=6) or hypertension (160-170 mm Hg, group 2, n=6) using phenylephrine. T2-, diffusion- and perfusion-weighted MRI were performed serially at five different time points: before and during ischemia, and at 1, 4 and 7 days after ischemia. Lesion volume and brain edema were estimated from apparent diffusion coefficient maps and T2-weighted images. Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) was measured within and outside the perfusion deficient lesion and in the corresponding regions of the contralesional hemisphere. Neurological deficits were evaluated after reperfusion. Infarct volume, edema, and neurological deficits were significantly reduced in group 2 vs. group 1. In addition, higher values and rapid restoration of rCBF were observed in group 2, while rCBF in both hemispheres was significantly decreased in group 1. Maintaining preexisting hypertension alleviates ischemic brain injury in SHR by increasing collateral circulation to the ischemic region and allowing rapid restoration of rCBF. The data suggest that maintaining preexisting hypertension is a valuable approach to managing hypertensive patients suffering from acute ischemic stroke. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Co2-dependent vasomotor reactivity of cerebral arteries in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: time course and effect of augmentation of cardiac output with dobutamine

Failing cerebral blood flow (CBF) autoregulation may contribute to cerebral damage after traumatic brain injury (TBI). The purpose of this study was to describe the time course of CO(2)-dependent vasoreactivity, measured as CBF velocity in response to hyperventilation (vasomotor reactivity [VMR] index). We included 13 patients who had had severe TBI, 8 of whom received norepinephrine (NE) based on clinical indication. In these patients, measurements were also performed after dobutamine administration, with a goal of increasing cardiac output by 30%. Blood flow velocity was measured with transcranial Doppler ultrasound in both hemispheres. All patients except one had an abnormal VMR index in at least one hemisphere within the first 24 h after TBI. In those patients who did not receive catecholamines, mean VMR index recovered within the first 48 to 72 h. In contrast, in patients who received NE within the first 48 h period, VMR index did not recover on the second day. Cardiac output and mean CBF velocity increased significantly during dobutamine administration, but VMR index did not change significantly. In conclusion, CO(2) vasomotor reactivity was abnormal in the first 24 h after TBI in most of the patients, but recovered within 48 h in those patients who did not receive NE, in contrast to those eventually receiving the drug. Addition of dobutamine to NE had variable but overall insignificant effects on CO(2) vasomotor reactivity.