Calcium imaging of odor-evoked responses in the Drosophila antennal lobe.

The antennal lobe is the primary olfactory center in the insect brain and represents the anatomical and functional equivalent of the vertebrate olfactory bulb. Olfactory information in the external world is transmitted to the antennal lobe by olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), which segregate to distinct regions of neuropil called glomeruli according to the specific olfactory receptor they express. Here, OSN axons synapse with both local interneurons (LNs), whose processes can innervate many different glomeruli, and projection neurons (PNs), which convey olfactory information to higher olfactory brain regions. Optical imaging of the activity of OSNs, LNs and PNs in the antennal lobe - traditionally using synthetic calcium indicators (e.g. calcium green, FURA-2) or voltage-sensitive dyes (e.g. RH414) - has long been an important technique to understand how olfactory stimuli are represented as spatial and temporal patterns of glomerular activity in many species of insects. Development of genetically-encoded neural activity reporters, such as the fluorescent calcium indicators G-CaMP and Cameleon, the bioluminescent calcium indicator GFP-aequorin, or a reporter of synaptic transmission, synapto-pHluorin has made the olfactory system of the fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster, particularly accessible to neurophysiological imaging, complementing its comprehensively-described molecular, electrophysiological and neuroanatomical properties. These reporters can be selectively expressed via binary transcriptional control systems (e.g. GAL4/UAS, LexA/LexAop, Q system) in defined populations of neurons within the olfactory circuitry to dissect with high spatial and temporal resolution how odor-evoked neural activity is represented, modulated and transformed. Here we describe the preparation and analysis methods to measure odor-evoked responses in the Drosophila antennal lobe using G-CaMP. The animal preparation is minimally invasive and can be adapted to imaging using wide-field fluorescence, confocal and two-photon microscopes.

Model-Free Reconstruction of Excitatory Neuronal Connectivity from Calcium Imaging Signals

A systematic assessment of global neural network connectivity through direct electrophysiological assays has remained technically infeasible, even in simpler systems like dissociated neuronal cultures. We introduce an improved algorithmic approach based on Transfer Entropy to reconstruct structural connectivity from network activity monitored through calcium imaging. We focus in this study on the inference of excitatory synaptic links. Based on information theory, our method requires no prior assumptions on the statistics of neuronal firing and neuronal connections. The performance of our algorithm is benchmarked on surrogate time series of calcium fluorescence generated by the simulated dynamics of a network with known ground-truth topology. We find that the functional network topology revealed by Transfer Entropy depends qualitatively on the time-dependent dynamic state of the network (bursting or non-bursting). Thus by conditioning with respect to the global mean activity, we improve the performance of our method. This allows us to focus the analysis to specific dynamical regimes of the network in which the inferred functional connectivity is shaped by monosynaptic excitatory connections, rather than by collective synchrony. Our method can discriminate between actual causal influences between neurons and spurious non-causal correlations due to light scattering artifacts, which inherently affect the quality of fluorescence imaging. Compared to other reconstruction strategies such as cross-correlation or Granger Causality methods, our method based on improved Transfer Entropy is remarkably more accurate. In particular, it provides a good estimation of the excitatory network clustering coefficient, allowing for discrimination between weakly and strongly clustered topologies. Finally, we demonstrate the applicability of our method to analyses of real recordings of in vitro disinhibited cortical cultures where we suggest that excitatory connections are characterized by an elevated level of clustering compared to a random graph (although not extreme) and can be markedly non-local.

Identification of neuronal network properties from the spectral analysis of calcium imaging signals in neuronal cultures

Neuronal networks in vitro are prominent systems to study the development of connections in living neuronal networks and the interplay between connectivity, activity and function. These cultured networks show a rich spontaneous activity that evolves concurrently with the connectivity of the underlying network. In this work we monitor the development of neuronal cultures, and record their activity using calcium fluorescence imaging. We use spectral analysis to characterize global dynamical and structural traits of the neuronal cultures. We first observe that the power spectrum can be used as a signature of the state of the network, for instance when inhibition is active or silent, as well as a measure of the network's connectivity strength. Second, the power spectrum identifies prominent developmental changes in the network such as GABAA switch. And third, the analysis of the spatial distribution of the spectral density, in experiments with a controlled disintegration of the network through CNQX, an AMPA-glutamate receptor antagonist in excitatory neurons, reveals the existence of communities of strongly connected, highly active neurons that display synchronous oscillations. Our work illustrates the interest of spectral analysis for the study of in vitro networks, and its potential use as a network-state indicator, for instance to compare healthy and diseased neuronal networks.

Transfer entropy reconstruction and labeling of neuronal connections from simulated calcium imaging

Neuronal dynamics are fundamentally constrained by the underlying structural network architecture, yet much of the details of this synaptic connectivity are still unknown even in neuronal cultures in vitro. Here we extend a previous approach based on information theory, the Generalized Transfer Entropy, to the reconstruction of connectivity of simulated neuronal networks of both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. We show that, due to the model-free nature of the developed measure, both kinds of connections can be reliably inferred if the average firing rate between synchronous burst events exceeds a small minimum frequency. Furthermore, we suggest, based on systematic simulations, that even lower spontaneous inter-burst rates could be raised to meet the requirements of our reconstruction algorithm by applying a weak spatially homogeneous stimulation to the entire network. By combining multiple recordings of the same in silico network before and after pharmacologically blocking inhibitory synaptic transmission, we show then how it becomes possible to infer with high confidence the excitatory or inhibitory nature of each individual neuron.

Identification of neuronal network properties from the spectral analysis of calcium imaging signals in neuronal cultures

Neuronal networks in vitro are prominent systems to study the development of connections in living neuronal networks and the interplay between connectivity, activity and function. These cultured networks show a rich spontaneous activity that evolves concurrently with the connectivity of the underlying network. In this work we monitor the development of neuronal cultures, and record their activity using calcium fluorescence imaging. We use spectral analysis to characterize global dynamical and structural traits of the neuronal cultures. We first observe that the power spectrum can be used as a signature of the state of the network, for instance when inhibition is active or silent, as well as a measure of the network's connectivity strength. Second, the power spectrum identifies prominent developmental changes in the network such as GABAA switch. And third, the analysis of the spatial distribution of the spectral density, in experiments with a controlled disintegration of the network through CNQX, an AMPA-glutamate receptor antagonist in excitatory neurons, reveals the existence of communities of strongly connected, highly active neurons that display synchronous oscillations. Our work illustrates the interest of spectral analysis for the study of in vitro networks, and its potential use as a network-state indicator, for instance to compare healthy and diseased neuronal networks.

Calcium imaging demonstrates colocalization of calcium influx and extrusion in fly photoreceptors

During illumination, Ca2+ enters fly photoreceptor cells through light-activated channels that are located in the rhabdomere, the compartment specialized for phototransduction. From the rhabdomere, Ca2+ diffuses into the cell body. We visualize this process by rapidly imaging the fluorescence in a cross section of a photoreceptor cell injected with a fluorescent Ca2+ indicator in vivo. The free Ca2+ concentration in the rhabdomere shows a very fast and large transient shortly after light onset. The free Ca2+ concentration in the cell body rises more slowly and displays a much smaller transient. After ≈400 ms of light stimulation, the Ca2+ concentration in both compartments reaches a steady state, indicating that thereafter an amount of Ca2+, equivalent to the amount of Ca2+ flowing into the cell, is extruded. Quantitative analysis demonstrates that during the steady state, the free Ca2+ concentration in the rhabdomere and throughout the cell body is the same. This shows that Ca2+ extrusion takes place very close to the location of Ca2+ influx, the rhabdomere, because otherwise gradients in the steady-state distribution of Ca2+ should be measured. The close colocalization of Ca2+ influx and Ca2+ extrusion ensures that, after turning off the light, Ca2+ removal from the rhabdomere is faster than from the cell body. This is functionally significant because it ensures rapid dark adaptation.

Investigating the role of glycine in astrocyte signalling using calcium imaging of rat primary cultures of cortical astrocytes

Trabalho Final do Curso de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, 2014

Direct In Vivo Manipulation and Imaging of Calcium Transients in Neutrophils Identify a Critical Role for Leading-Edge Calcium Flux.

Calcium signaling has long been associated with key events of immunity, including chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and activation. However, imaging and manipulation of calcium flux in motile immune cells in live animals remain challenging. Using light-sheet microscopy for in vivo calcium imaging in zebrafish, we observe characteristic patterns of calcium flux triggered by distinct events, including phagocytosis of pathogenic bacteria and migration of neutrophils toward inflammatory stimuli. In contrast to findings from ex vivo studies, we observe enriched calcium influx at the leading edge of migrating neutrophils. To directly manipulate calcium dynamics in vivo, we have developed transgenic lines with cell-specific expression of the mammalian TRPV1 channel, enabling ligand-gated, reversible, and spatiotemporal control of calcium influx. We find that controlled calcium influx can function to help define the neutrophil's leading edge. Cell-specific TRPV1 expression may have broad utility for precise control of calcium dynamics in other immune cell types and organisms.

Imaging pheromone sensing in a mouse vomeronasal acute tissue slice preparation.

Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher used the term pheromone for the first time in 1959 to describe chemicals used for intra-species communication. Pheromones are volatile or non-volatile short-lived molecules secreted and/or contained in biological fluids, such as urine, a liquid known to be a main source of pheromones. Pheromonal communication is implicated in a variety of key animal modalities such as kin interactions, hierarchical organisations and sexual interactions and are consequently directly correlated with the survival of a given species. In mice, the ability to detect pheromones is principally mediated by the vomeronasal organ (VNO), a paired structure located at the base of the nasal cavity, and enclosed in a cartilaginous capsule. Each VNO has a tubular shape with a lumen allowing the contact with the external chemical world. The sensory neuroepithelium is principally composed of vomeronasal bipolar sensory neurons (VSNs). Each VSN extends a single dendrite to the lumen ending in a large dendritic knob bearing up to 100 microvilli implicated in chemical detection. Numerous subpopulations of VSNs are present. They are differentiated by the chemoreceptor they express and thus possibly by the ligand(s) they recognize. Two main vomeronasal receptor families, V1Rs and V2Rs, are composed respectively by 240 and 120 members and are expressed in separate layers of the neuroepithelium. Olfactory receptors (ORs) and formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) are also expressed in VSNs. Whether or not these neuronal subpopulations use the same downstream signalling pathway for sensing pheromones is unknown. Despite a major role played by a calcium-permeable channel (TRPC2) present in the microvilli of mature neurons TRPC2 independent transduction channels have been suggested. Due to the high number of neuronal subpopulations and the peculiar morphology of the organ, pharmacological and physiological investigations of the signalling elements present in the VNO are complex. Here, we present an acute tissue slice preparation of the mouse VNO for performing calcium imaging investigations. This physiological approach allows observations, in the natural environment of a living tissue, of general or individual subpopulations of VSNs previously loaded with Fura-2AM, a calcium dye. This method is also convenient for studying any GFP-tagged pheromone receptor and is adaptable for the use of other fluorescent calcium probes. As an example, we use here a VG mouse line, in which the translation of the pheromone V1rb2 receptor is linked to the expression of GFP by a polycistronic strategy.

Glutamate-induced potentiation of calcium influx in primary hippocampal culture neurons

ABSTRACT This works aim was to test whether LTP-like features can also be measured in cell culture and by methods that allow to analyse a alrger number of cells. A suitable method for this purpose is calcium imaging. The rationale for this approach lies in the fact that LTP/LTD are dependent on changes in intracellular calcium concentrations. Calcium levels have been measured using the calcium sensitive dye fura-2, whose fluorescence spectrum changes upon formation of the [fura-2-Ca2+] complex. Our LTP-inducing protocol comprised of two glutamate stimuli of identical size and duration (50 mM, 30 s) which were separated by 35 min. We could demonstrate that such a stimulation pattern gives rise to approx. 25% larger calcium influx at the second stimulus. It has been shown than such a stimulation pattern gives rise to an average of 25% augmentation (potentiation) of the second response, with 69% of potentiated cells. This experimental paradigm shows the pharmacological properties of LTP, established by previous electrophysiological studies:- blocking of NMDARs and mGluRs eliminates LTP induction;- blocking of AMPARs and L-type VGCCs does not eliminate LTP induction. Having obtained a system for induction and following of LTP-like changes, a preliminary application example was performed. Its purpose was to investigate possible influence of nicotine and galanthamine on our potentiation effect. Nicotine (100 mM) was shown both to increase and to eliminate glutamate-induced potentiation. Galanthamine coapplication (0.5 mM) with nicotine and glutamate exerted no effect on nicotinic modulation. However, galanthamine coapplied with glutamate alone seems to augment glutamate-induced potentiation. An LTP model system presented here could be additionally refined, by variation of glutamate application times, and testing for dependence on various forms of protein kinases. Galanthamine effect would probably be better addressed by cell-to-cell measurements instead of statistical approach, with subsequent identification of the cell type. Alternatively, combined calcium imaging – electrophysiological experiments could be performed. Spatial and temporal properties of intracellular ion dynamics could be utilised as diagnostic tools of the physiological state of the cells, thereby finding its application in functional proteomics.

Computation of direction selectivity in retinal starburst amacrine cell dendrites – studied using electrophysiological recordings and two-photon imaging

Neuronal circuits in the retina analyze images according to qualitative aspects such as color or motion, before the information is transmitted to higher visual areas of the brain. One example, studied for over the last four decades, is the detection of motion direction in ‘direction selective’ neurons. Recently, the starburst amacrine cell, one type of retinal interneuron, has emerged as an essential player in the computation of direction selectivity. In this study the mechanisms underlying the computation of direction selective calcium signals in starburst cell dendrites were investigated using whole-cell electrical recordings and two-photon calcium imaging. Analysis of the somatic electrical responses to visual stimulation and pharmacological agents indicated that the directional signal (i) is not computed presynaptically to starburst cells or by inhibitory network interactions. It is thus computed via a cell-intrinsic mechanism, which (ii) depends upon the differential, i.e. direction selective, activation of voltage-gated channels. Optically measuring dendritic calcium signals as a function of somatic voltage suggests (iii) a difference in resting membrane potential between the starburst cell’s soma and its distal dendrites. In conclusion, it is proposed that the mechanism underlying direction selectivity in starburst cell dendrites relies on intrinsic properties of the cell, particularly on the interaction of spatio-temporally structured synaptic inputs with voltage-gated channels, and their differential activation due to a somato-dendritic difference in membrane potential.

Involvement of Beta-arrestin 1 and Beta-arrestin 2 in store operated calcium entry

Résumé : La variation de la [Ca2+] intracellulaire participe à nombreux de processus biologiques. Les cellules eucaryotes expriment à la membrane plasmique une variété de canaux par lesquelles le calcium peut entrer. Dans les cellules non excitables, deux mécanismes principaux permettent l'entrée calcique; l'entrée capacitative de Ca2+ via Orai1 (SOCE) et l'entrée calcique activé par un récepteur (ROCE). Plusieurs protéines clés sont impliquées dans la régulation de ces voies d'entrée calcique, ainsi que dans l'homéostasie calcique. TRPC6 est un canal calcique impliquée dans l'entrée calcique dans les cellules à la suite d’une stimulation d’un récepteur hormonal. TRPC6 transloque à la membrane cellulaire et il y demeure jusqu'à ce que le stimulus soit retiré. Les mécanismes qui régulent le trafic et l'activation de TRPC6 sont cependant encore peu connus. Des découvertes récentes ont démontré qu'il y a un rôle potentiel de Rho kinase dans l'activité de TRPC6. Rho kinase est activée par la petite protéine G RhoA qui peut être activée par les protéines G hétérotrimériques Gα12 et Gα13. En plus de Gα12 et Gα13, les protéines de désensibilisation des GPCR β -arrestin 1 et / ou β-arrestin 2 peuvent aussi activer RhoA. Le but de notre étude est d'examiner la participation des protéines Gα12/13 et β-arrestin 1/ β-arrestin 2 dans l'activation de TRPC6 et de la protéine Orai1. Nous avons utilisé des ARN interférant (siRNA) spécifiques pour induire une réduction de l'expression de Gα12/13 ou β-arrestin 1/β-arrestin 2. La conséquence sur l’entrée de Ca2+ dans les cellules a été ensuite déterminée par imagerie calcique en temps réel suite à une stimulation par la vasopressine (AVP), thapsigargin ou carbachol. Nous avons donc identifié que dans des cellules A7r5, une lignée cellulaire de musculaires lisses vasculaires où le canal TRPC6 exprimé de manière endogène, la diminution de l’expression des protéines Gα12 ou Gα13 ne semble pas modifier l’entrée Ca2+ induit par l’AVP par rapport aux cellules témoins. D'autre part, la diminution de l’expression β-arrestin 1 ou β-arrestin 2 dans des cellules HEK 293 ainsi que des cellules HEK 293 exprimant de façon stable TRPC6 (cellules T6.11) ont augmenté l’entrée de Ca2+ induite par thapsigargin, un activateur pharmacologique de SOCE. Des études de co-immunoprécipitation démontrent une interaction entre la β-arrestin 1 et STIM1, alors qu'aucune interaction n'a été observée entre les β-arrestin 1 et Orai1. Nous avons de plus montré à l'aide d'analyse en microscopie confocale que la diminution de l’expression β-arrestin 1 ou β-arrestin 2 n’influence pas la quantité d’Orai1 à la périphérie cellulaire. Cependant, des résultats préliminaires indiquent que la diminution de l’expression β-arrestin 1 ou β-arrestin 2 augmente la quantité de STIM1-YFP dans l'espace intracellulaire et diminue sa quantité à la périphérie cellulaire. En conclusion, nous avons montré que les β-arrestin 1 ou β-arrestin 2 sont impliquées dans l'entrée capacitative de Ca2+ (SOCE) et contrôlent la quantité de STIM1 dans le réticulum endoplasmique.