L’implication du Stromal Cell-derived Factor-1 alpha dans le remodelage cardiaque une semaine après un infarctus du myocarde

L’injection de cellules souches provenant de la moelle osseuse est reconnue pour améliorer la fonction ventriculaire ainsi que le remodelage cicatriciel après un infarctus du myocarde (IM). Le Stromal Cell-derived factor-1 alpha (SDF-1 alpha), une chimiokine induite par l’ischémie cardiaque, représente une grande importance en raison de son rôle dans le recrutement de cellules inflammatoires et de cellules souches de la moelle osseuse vers les sites endommagés. Quoique les recherches sur le rôle de la chimiokine SDF-1 alpha dans le remodelage ventriculaire se multiplient, son implication dans la phase aiguë du remodelage reste inexplorée. Le but de la présente étude est de déterminer l’effet du SDF-1 alpha sur la taille de la cicatrice, l’hypertrophie cardiaque ainsi que la fonction ventriculaire chez des rats et des souris une semaine après un IM. La stratégie utilisée implique l’administration de l’AMD3100 (1 mg/kg, 24 heures après l’IM, pendant 6 jours), l’antagoniste sélectif du récepteur du SDF-1 alpha, le CXCR4. Ce récepteur est couplé à une protéine G alpha i et induit la migration et la prolifération cellulaire. Chez les rats du groupe IM, l’expression de la chimiokine a été détectée surtout dans les cellules musculaires lisses et les cellules endothéliales des vaisseaux cicatriciels. Le profil d’expression de la chimiokine dans le cœur infarci indique un gradient de concentration vers la cicatrice. Une semaine après l’IM, le traitement avec l’AMD3100 a diminué la taille de la cicatrice, résultant en une amélioration de la fonction ventriculaire et une diminution de l’élévation de l’expression de l’ARNm de l’ANP dans le ventricule gauche non infarci (VGNI). Chez les souris, le traitement avec l’AMD3100 a engendré les mêmes effets, soit une diminution de la taille de la cicatrice ainsi qu’une amélioration de la fonction ventriculaire. La réduction de la taille de la région infarcie chez les souris traitées avec l’AMD3100 est associée avec une atténuation de l’infiltration des neutrophiles dans la région ischémique. Ces résultats suggèrent que le blocage pharmacologique de l’axe SDF-1 alpha/CXCR4 lors de la phase aiguë du remodelage ventriculaire après un IM diminue la taille de la cicatrice et améliore la fonction ventriculaire, en partie, par la diminution de la réaction inflammatoire.

Crystal structure of chemically synthesized [N33A] stromal cell-derived factor 1α, a potent ligand for the HIV-1 “fusin” coreceptor

Stromal cell-derived factor-1α (SDF-1α ) is a member of the chemokine superfamily and functions as a growth factor and chemoattractant through activation of CXCR4/LESTR/Fusin, a G protein-coupled receptor. This receptor also functions as a coreceptor for T-tropic syncytium-inducing strains of HIV-1. SDF-1α antagonizes infectivity of these strains by competing with gp120 for binding to the receptor. The crystal structure of a variant SDF-1α ([N33A]SDF-1α ) prepared by total chemical synthesis has been refined to 2.2-Å resolution. Although SDF-1α adopts a typical chemokine β-β-β-α topology, the packing of the α-helix against the β-sheet is strikingly different. Comparison of SDF-1α with other chemokine structures confirms the hypothesis that SDF-1α may be either an ancestral protein from which all other chemokines evolved or the chemokine that is the least divergent from a primordial chemokine. The structure of SDF-1α reveals a positively charged surface ideal for binding to the negatively charged extracellular loops of the CXCR4 HIV-1 coreceptor. This ionic complementarity is likely to promote the interaction of the mobile N-terminal segment of SDF-1α with interhelical sites of the receptor, resulting in a biological response.

The CXC chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1 is not responsible for CD8+ T cell suppression of syncytia-inducing strains of HIV-1

Primary CD8+ T cells from HIV+ asymptomatics can suppress virus production from CD4+ T cells acutely infected with either non-syncytia-inducing (NSI) or syncytia-inducing (SI) HIV-1 isolates. NSI strains of HIV-1 predominantly use the CCR5 chemokine receptor as a fusion cofactor, whereas fusion of T cell line-adapted SI isolates is mediated by another chemokine receptor, CXCR4. The CCR5 ligands RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted), macrophage inflammatory protein 1α (MIP-1α), and MIP-1β are HIV-1 suppressive factors secreted by CD8+ cells that inhibit NSI viruses. Recently, the CXC chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) was identified as a ligand for CXCR4 and shown to inhibit SI strains. We speculated that SDF-1 might be an effector molecule for CD8+ suppression of SI isolates and assessed several SDF-1 preparations for inhibition of HIV-1LAI-mediated cell–cell fusion, and examined levels of SDF-1 transcripts in CD8+ T cells. SDF-1 fusion inhibitory activity correlated with the N terminus, and the α and β forms of SDF-1 exhibited equivalent fusion blocking activity. SDF-1 preparations having the N terminus described by Bleul et al. (Bleul, C.C., Fuhlbrigge, R.C., Casasnovas, J.M., Aiuti, A. & Springer, T.A. (1996) J. Exp. Med. 184, 1101–1109) readily blocked HIV-1LAI-mediated fusion, whereas forms containing two or three additional N-terminal amino acids lacked this activity despite their ability to bind and/or signal through CXCR4. Though SDF-1 is constitutively expressed in most tissues, CD8 T cells contained extremely low levels of SDF-1 mRNA transcripts (<1 transcript/5,000 cells), and these levels did not correlate with virus suppressive activity. We conclude that suppression of SI strains of HIV-1 by CD8+ T cells is unlikely to involve SDF-1.

Molecular cloning and characterization of a murine pre-B-cell growth-stimulating factor/stromal cell-derived factor 1 receptor, a murine homolog of the human immunodeficiency virus 1 entry coreceptor fusin

Pre-B-cell growth-stimulating factor/stromal cell-derived factor 1 (PBSF/SDF-1) is a member of the CXC group of chemokines that is initially identified as a bone marrow stromal cell-derived factor and as a pre-B-cell stimulatory factor. Although most chemokines are thought to be inducible inflammatory mediators, PBSF/SDF-1 is essential for perinatal viability, B lymphopoiesis, bone marrow myelopoiesis, and cardiac ventricular septal formation, and it has chemotactic activities on resting lymphocytes and monocytes. In this paper, we have isolated a cDNA that encodes a seven transmembrane-spanning-domain receptor, designated pre-B-cell-derived chemokine receptor (PB-CKR) from a murine pre-B-cell clone, DW34. The deduced amino acid sequence has 90% identity with that of a HUMSTSR/fusin, a human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) entry coreceptor. However, the second extracellular region has lower identity (67%) compared with HUMSTSR/fusin. PB-CKR is expressed during embryo genesis and in many organs and T cells of adult mice. Murine PBSF/SDF-1 induced an increase in intracellular free Ca2+ in DW34 cells and PB-CKR-transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, suggesting that PB-CKR is a functional receptor for murine PBSF/SDF-1. Murine PBSF/SDF-1 also induced Ca2+ influx in fusin-transfected CHO cells. On the other hand, considering previous results that HIV-1 does not enter murine T cells that expressed human CD4, PB-CKR may not support HIV-1 infection. Thus, PB-CKR will be an important tool for functional mapping of HIV-1 entry coreceptor fusin and for understanding the function of PBSF/SDF-1 further.

Anti-HIV-1 and chemotactic activities of human stromal cell-derived factor 1α (SDF-1α) and SDF-1β are abolished by CD26/dipeptidyl peptidase IV-mediated cleavage

CD26 is a leukocyte-activation antigen that is expressed on T lymphocytes and macrophages and possesses dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) activity, whose natural substrates have not been identified yet. CXC chemokines, stromal cell-derived factor 1α (SDF-1α) and 1β (SDF-1β), sharing the receptor CXCR-4, are highly efficacious chemoattractants for resting lymphocytes and CD34+ progenitor cells, and they efficiently block the CXCR-4-mediated entry into cells of T cell line tropic strains of HIV type 1 (HIV-1). Here we show that both the chemotactic and antiviral activities of these chemokines are abrogated by DPPIV-mediated specific removal of the N-terminal dipeptide, not only when the chemokines are produced in transformed mouse L cell line to express human CD26 but also when they were exposed to a human T cell line (H9) physiologically expressing CD26. Mutagenesis of SDF-1α confirmed the critical requirement of the N-terminal dipeptide for its chemotactic and antiviral activities. These data suggest that CD26-mediated cleavage of SDF-1α and SDF-1β likely occurs in human bodies and promotes HIV-1 replication and disease progression. They may also explain why memory function of CD4+ cells is preferentially lost in HIV-1 infection. Furthermore, CD26 would modulate various other biological processes in which SDF-1α and SDF-1β are involved.

Stromal-derived factor-1 alpha (CXCL12) levels increase in periodontal disease

Background: The CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) and its ligand, stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1 alpha or CXC chemokine ligand 12) are involved in the trafficking of leukocytes into and out of extravascular tissues. The purpose of this study was to determine whether SDF-1 alpha secreted by host cells plays a role in recruiting inflammatory cells into the periodontia during local inflammation. Methods: SDF-1 alpha levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) of 24 individuals with periodontitis versus healthy individuals in tissue biopsies and in a preclinical rat model of Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharide-induced experimental bone loss. Neutrophil chemotaxis assays were also used to evaluate whether SDF-1 alpha plays a role in the recruitment of host cells at periodontal lesions. Results: Subjects with periodontal disease had higher levels of SDF-1 alpha in their GCF compared to healthy subjects. Subjects with periodontal disease who underwent mechanical therapy demonstrated decreased levels of SDF-1 alpha. Immunohistologic staining showed that SDF-1 alpha and CXCR4 levels were elevated in samples obtained from periodontally compromised individuals. Similar results were observed in the rodent model. Neutrophil migration was enhanced in the presence of SDF-1 alpha, mimicking immune cell migration in periodontal lesions. Conclusions: SDF-1 alpha may be involved in the immune defense pathway activated during periodontal disease. Upon the development of diseased tissues, SDF-1 alpha levels increase and may recruit host defensive cells into sites of inflammation. These studies suggest that SDF-1 alpha may be a useful biomarker for the identification of periodontal disease progression.

Toll-like receptor 2 knockdown modulates interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 but not stromal derived factor-1 (SDF-1/CXCL12) in human periodontal ligament and gingival fibroblasts

Background: Fibroblasts are now seen as active components of the immune response because these cells express Toll-like receptors (TLRs), recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns, and mediate the production of cytokines and chemokines during inflammation. The innate host response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Porphyromonas gingivalis is unusual inasmuch as different studies have reported that it can be an agonist for Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and an antagonist or agonist for Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). This study investigates and compares whether signaling through TLR2 or TLR4 could affect the secretion of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and stromal derived factor-1 (SDF-1/CXCL12) in both human gingival fibroblasts (HGF) and human periodontal ligament fibroblasts (HPDLF). Methods: After small interfering RNA-mediated silencing of TLR2 and TLR4, HGF and HPDLF from the same donors were stimulated with P. gingivalis LPS or with two synthetic ligands of TLR2, Pam2CSK4 and Pam3CSK4, for 6 hours. IL-6, IL-8, and CXCL12mRNA expression and protein secretion were evaluated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzymelinked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Results: TLR2 mRNA expression was upregulated in HGF but not in HPDLF by all the stimuli applied. Knockdown of TLR2 decreased IL-6 and IL-8 in response to P. gingivalis LPS, or Pam2CSK4 and Pam3CSK4, in a similar manner in both fibroblasts subpopulations. Conversely, CXCL12 remained unchanged by TLR2 or TLR4 silencing. Conclusion: These results suggest that signaling through TLR2 by gingival and periodontal ligament fibroblasts can control the secretion of IL-6 and IL-8, which contribute to periodontal pathogenesis, but do not interfere with CXCL12 levels, an important chemokine in the repair process.

NF-κB activation and interleukin 6 production in fibroblasts by estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer cell-derived interleukin 1α

Several angiogenic factors and extracellular matrix-degrading enzymes that promote invasion and metastasis of cancer are produced by stromal fibroblasts that surround cancer cells. The expression of genes that code for some of these proteins is regulated by the transcription factor NF-κB. In this report, we demonstrate that conditioned medium (CM) from estrogen receptor (ER)-negative but not ER-positive breast cancer cells induces NF-κB in fibroblasts. In contrast, CM from both ER-positive and ER-negative breast cancer cells induces NF-κB in macrophages and endothelial cells. NF-κB activation in fibroblasts was accompanied by induction of interleukin 6 (IL-6) and urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA), both of which promote angiogenesis and metastasis. A survey of cytokines known for their ability to induce NF-κB identified IL-1α as the factor responsible for NF-κB activation in fibroblasts. Analysis of primary breast carcinomas revealed the presence of IL-1α transcripts in majority of lymph node-positive breast cancers. These results along with the known role of IL-1α and IL-6 in osteoclast formation provide insight into the mechanism of metastasis and hypercalcemia in advanced breast cancers.

Differential Production of Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-1 alpha, Stromal-Derived Factor-1, and IL-6 by Human Cultured Periodontal Ligament and Gingival Fibroblasts Challenged With Lipopolysaccharide From P. gingivalis

Background: Fibroblasts are considered important cells in periodontitis. When challenged by different agents, they respond through the release of cytokines that participate in the inflammatory process. The aim of this study is to evaluate and compare the expression and production of macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1 alpha, stromal-derived factor (SDF)-1, and interleukin (IL)-6 by human cultured periodontal ligament and gingival fibroblasts challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Porphyromonas gingivalis. Methods: Fibroblasts were cultured from biopsies of gingival tissue and periodontal ligament of the same donors and used on the fourth passage. After confluence in 24-well plates, the culture medium alone (control) or with 0.1 to 10 mu g/ml of LPS from P. gingivalis was added to the wells, and after 1, 6, and 24 hours, the supernatant and the cells were collected and analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and real-time polymerase chain reaction, respectively. Results: MIP-1 alpha, SDF-1, and IL-6 protein production was significantly greater in gingival fibroblasts compared to periodontal ligament fibroblasts. IL-6 was upregulated in a time-dependent manner, mainly in gingival fibroblasts (P<0.05), which secreted more MIP-1 alpha in the lowest concentration of LPS used (0.1 mu g/ml). In contrast, a basal production of SDF-1 that was inhibited with the increase of LPS concentration was detected, especially after 24 hours (P<0.05). Conclusion: The distinct ability of the gingival and periodontal ligament fibroblasts to secrete MIP-1 alpha, SDF-1, and IL-6 emphasizes that these cells may differently contribute to the balance of cytokines in the LPS-challenged periodontium. J Periodontol 2010;81:310-317.

Pre-B-cell transcription factor 1 and steroidogenic factor 1 synergistically regulate adrenocortical growth and steroidogenesis

variety of transcription factors including Wilms tumor gene (Wt-1), steroidogenic factor 1 (Sf-1), dosage-sensitive sex reversal, adrenal hypoplasia congenita on the X-chromosome, Gene 1 (Dax-1), and pre-B-cell transcription factor 1 (Pbx1) have been defined as necessary for regular adrenocortical development. However, the role of Pbx1 for adrenal growth and function in the adult organism together with the molecular relationship between Pbx1 and these other transcription factors have not been characterized. We demonstrate that Pbx haploinsufficiency (Pbx1(+/-)) in mice is accompanied by a significant lower adrenal weight in adult animals compared with wild-type controls. Accordingly, baseline proliferating cell nuclear antigen levels are lower in Pbx1(+/-) mice, and unilateral adrenalectomy results in impaired contralateral compensatory adrenal growth, indicating a lower proliferative potential in the context of Pbx1 haploinsufficiency. In accordance with the key role of IGFs in adrenocortical proliferation and development, real-time RT-PCR demonstrates significant lower expression levels of the IGF-I receptor, and up-regulation of IGF binding protein-2. Functionally, Pbx1(+/-) mice display a blunted corticosterone response after ACTH stimulation coincident with lower adrenal expression of the ACTH receptor (melanocortin 2 receptor, Mc2-r). Mechanistically, in vitro studies reveal that Pbx1 and Sf-1 synergistically stimulates Mc2-r promoter activity. Moreover, Sf-1 directly activates the Pbx1 promoter activity in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, these studies provide evidence for a role of Pbx1 in the maintenance of a functional adrenal cortex mediated by synergistic actions of Pbx1 and Sf-1 in the transcriptional regulation of the critical effector of adrenocortical differentiation, the ACTH receptor.

Toll-like receptor 2 knockdown modulates Interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 but not Stromal Derived Factor-1 (SDF-1/CXCL12) in human periodontal ligament and gingival fibroblasts

Background: Fibroblasts are now seen as active components of the immune response because these cells express Toll-like receptors (TLRs), recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns, and mediate the production of cytokines and chemokines during inflammation. The innate host response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Porphyromonas gingivalis is unusual inasmuch as different studies have reported that it can be an agonist for Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and an antagonist or agonist for Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). This study investigates and compares whether signaling through TLR2 or TLR4 could affect the secretion of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and stromal derived factor-1 (SDF-1/CXCL12) in both human gingival fibroblasts (HGF) and human periodontal ligament fibroblasts (HPDLF). Methods: After small interfering RNA-mediated silencing of TLR2 and TLR4, HGF and HPDLF from the same donors were stimulated with P. gingivalis LPS or with two synthetic ligands of TLR2, Pam2CSK4 and Pam3CSK4, for 6 hours. IL-6, IL-8, and CXCL12 mRNA expression and protein secretion were evaluated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Results: TLR2 mRNA expression was upregulated in HGF but not in HPDLF by all the stimuli applied. Knockdown of TLR2 decreased IL-6 and IL-8 in response to P. gingivalis LPS, or Pam2CSK4 and Pam3CSK4, in a similar manner in both fibroblasts subpopulations. Conversely, CXCL12 remained unchanged by TLR2 or TLR4 silencing. Conclusion: These results suggest that signaling through TLR2 by gingival and periodontal ligament fibroblasts can control the secretion of IL-6 and IL-8, which contribute to periodontal pathogenesis, but do not interfere with CXCL12 levels, an important chemokine in the repair process.

Selectively impaired development of intestinal T cell receptor gamma delta+ cells and liver CD4+ NK1+ T cell receptor alpha beta+ cells in T cell factor-1-deficient mice.

T cell factor-1 (Tcf-1) is a transcription factor that binds to a sequence motif present in several T cell-specific enhancer elements. In Tcf-1-deficient (Tcf-1-/-) mice, thymocyte development is partially blocked at the transition from the CD4-8+ immature single-positive stage to the CD4+8+ double-positive stage, resulting in a marked decrease of mature peripheral T cells in lymph node and spleen. We report here that the development of most intestinal TCR gamma delta+ cells and liver CD4+ NK1.1+TCR alpha beta+ (NK1+T) cells, which are believed to be of extrathymic origin, is selectively impaired in Tcf-1-/- mice. In contrast, thymic and thymus-derived (splenic) TCR gamma delta+ cells are present in normal numbers in Tcf-1-/- mice, as are other T cell subsets in intestine and liver. Collectively, our data suggest that Tcf-1 is differentially required for the development of some extrathymic T cell subsets, including intestinal TCR gamma delta+ cells and liver CD4+ NK1+T cells.

Transcriptional regulation of CD4 gene expression by T cell factor-1/beta-catenin pathway.

By interacting with MHC class II molecules, CD4 facilitates lineage development as well as activation of Th cells. Expression of physiological levels of CD4 requires a proximal CD4 enhancer to stimulate basic CD4 promoter activity. T cell factor (TCF)-1/beta-catenin pathway has previously been shown to regulate thymocyte survival via up-regulating antiapoptotic molecule Bcl-xL. By both loss and gain of function studies, in this study we show additional function of TCF-1/beta-catenin pathway in the regulation of CD4 expression in vivo. Mice deficient in TCF-1 displayed significantly reduced protein and mRNA levels of CD4 in CD4+ CD8+ double-positive (DP) thymocytes. A transgene encoding Bcl-2 restored survival but not CD4 levels of TCF-1(-/-) DP cells. Thus, TCF-1-regulated survival and CD4 expression are two separate events. In contrast, CD4 levels were restored on DP TCF-1(-/-) cells by transgenic expression of a wild-type TCF-1, but not a truncated TCF-1 that lacks a domain required for interacting with beta-catenin. Furthermore, forced expression of a stabilized beta-catenin, a coactivator of TCF-1, resulted in up-regulation of CD4. TCF-1 or stabilized beta-catenin greatly stimulated activity of a CD4 reporter gene driven by a basic CD4 promoter and the CD4 enhancer. However, mutation of a potential TCF binding site located within the enhancer abrogated TCF-1 and beta-catenin-mediated activation of CD4 reporter. Finally, recruitment of TCF-1 to CD4 enhancer was detected in wild-type but not TCF-1 null mice by chromatin-immunoprecipitation analysis. Thus, our results demonstrated that TCF/beta-catenin pathway enhances CD4 expression in vivo by recruiting TCF-1 to stimulate CD4 enhancer activity.

Positive and negative roles of the trans-acting T cell factor-1 for the acquisition of distinct Ly-49 MHC class I receptors by NK cells.

Members of the Ly-49 gene family code for class I MHC-specific receptors that regulate NK cell function. Due to a combinatorial distribution of Ly-49 receptors, NK cells display considerable clonal heterogeneity. The acquisition of one Ly-49 receptor, Ly-49A is strictly dependent on the transcriptional trans-acting factor T cell-specific factor-1 (TCF-1). Indeed, TCF-1 binds to two sites in the Ly-49a promoter and regulates its activity, suggesting that the Ly-49a gene is a direct TCF-1 target. TCF-1 deficiency resulted in the altered usage of additional Ly-49 receptors. We show in this study, using TCF-1 beta(2)-microglobulin double-deficient mice, that these repertoire alterations are not due to Ly-49/MHC class I interactions. Our findings rather suggest a TCF-1-dependent, cell autonomous effect on the acquisition of multiple Ly-49 receptors. Besides reduced receptor usage (Ly-49A and D), we also observed no effect (Ly-49C) and significantly expanded (Ly-49G and I) receptor usage in the absence of TCF-1. These effects did not in all cases correlate with the presence of TCF binding sites in the respective proximal promoter. Therefore, besides TCF-1 binding to the proximal promoter, Ly-49 acquisition may also be regulated by TCF-1 binding to more distant cis-acting elements and/or by regulating the expression of additional trans-acting factors. Consistent with the observed differential, positive or negative role of TCF-1 for Ly-49 receptor acquisition, reporter gene assays revealed the presence of an inducing as well as a repressing TCF site in certain proximal Ly-49 promoters. These findings reveal an important role of TCF-1 for the formation of the NK cell receptor repertoire.

Initiation and limitation of Ly-49A NK cell receptor acquisition by T cell factor-1.

The establishment of clonally variable expression of MHC class I-specific receptors by NK cells is not well understood. The Ly-49A receptor is used by approximately 20% of NK cells, whereby most cells express either the maternal or paternal allele and few express simultaneously both alleles. We have previously shown that NK cells expressing Ly-49A were reduced or almost absent in mice harboring a single or no functional allele of the transcription factor T cell factor-1 (TCF-1), respectively. In this study, we show that enforced expression of TCF-1 in transgenic mice yields an expanded Ly-49A subset. Even though the frequencies of Ly-49A(+) NK cells varied as a function of the TCF-1 dosage, the relative abundance of mono- and biallelic Ly-49A cells was maintained. Mono- and biallelic Ly-49A NK cells were also observed in mice expressing exclusively a transgenic TCF-1, i.e., expressing a fixed amount of TCF-1 in all NK cells. These findings suggest that Ly-49A acquisition is a stochastic event due to limiting TCF-1 availability, rather than the consequence of clonally variable expression of the endogenous TCF-1 locus. Efficient Ly-49A acquisition depended on the expression of a TCF-1 isoform, which included a domain known to associate with the TCF-1 coactivator beta-catenin. Indeed, the proximal Ly-49A promoter was beta-catenin responsive in reporter gene assays. We thus propose that Ly-49A receptor expression is induced from a single allele in occasional NK cells due to a limitation in the amount of a transcription factor complex requiring TCF-1.