Le modèle de convergence vu selon l'approche de Dan, Ben-David: une vérification empirique par rapport au 8e cycle du GATT; le cas de l'ALENA versus l'Union Européenne (période 1970-2000).

Rapport de recherche

Les théories des avantages économiques expliquent-elles le commerce entre pays de l'ALENA.

Rapport de recherche

L'impact du pays d'origine d’un produit sur les évaluations des consommateurs américains et canadiens: une étude comparative dans le contexte de l'ALENA

L'internationalisation des échanges commerciaux ainsi que la globalisation des marchés font partie intégrante du monde économique d'aujourd'hui. Ces tendances ont pour effet d'intensifier la création de produits hybrides à l'échelle mondiale. La conception de produits ayant plus d'une origine est chose courante dans les trois pays ayant apposé leur signature sur l'Accord de Libre-Échange Nord-Américain (ALENA). Ce travail de recherche établit une distinction entre le pays de conception et le pays d'assemblage d'un produit. L'objet de cette étude a pour but d'étudier les impacts relatifs de ces deux concepts sur les évaluations des consommateurs américains et canadiens. Les évaluations concernent la qualité perçue et la valeur d'achat de produits de consommation courante. L'objectif principal de l'étude porte sur l'analyse des différences de perception entre deux pays: le Canada et les États-Unis. Les évaluations des consommateurs américains et canadiens sont mesurées à l'aide de profils d'analyse conjointe présentés sous forme de publicités. Trois catégories de produits sont évaluées. Ces dernières présentent des niveaux de risque et d'implication d'achat différents. Chacun des produits est caractérisé par trois niveaux hiérarchiques sur cinq attributs: le pays de conception, le pays d'assemblage, la marque, le prix et la garantie. Les résultats montrent que les consommateurs américains et canadiens établissent une distinction entre le pays de conception et le pays d'assemblage. Malgré le rôle modérateur des variables: marque, prix et garantie; le pays de conception et le pays d'assemblage demeurent dans la plupart des cas les indices informationnels les plus importants. Les résultats indiquent également que le nationalisme américain est sensiblement plus prononcé que le nationalisme canadien. Enfin, les américains sont en général plus critiques dans leurs évaluations et également plus sensibles aux variations de prix que leurs voisins du nord. Des implications managériales sont discutées dans le contexte de L'ALENA.

New genetic loci link adipose and insulin biology to body fat distribution

Body fat distribution is a heritable trait and a well-established predictor of adverse metabolic outcomes, independent of overall adiposity. To increase our understanding of the genetic basis of body fat distribution and its molecular links to cardiometabolic traits, here we conduct genome-wide association meta-analyses of traits related to waist and hip circumferences in up to 224,459 individuals. We identify 49 loci (33 new) associated with waist-to-hip ratio adjusted for body mass index (BMI), and an additional 19 loci newly associated with related waist and hip circumference measures (P < 5 × 10−8). In total, 20 of the 49 waist-to-hip ratio adjusted for BMI loci show significant sexual dimorphism, 19 of which display a stronger effect in women. The identified loci were enriched for genes expressed in adipose tissue and for putative regulatory elements in adipocytes. Pathway analyses implicated adipogenesis, angiogenesis, transcriptional regulation and insulin resistance as processes affecting fat distribution, providing insight into potential pathophysiological mechanisms.

Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology

Obesity is heritable and predisposes to many diseases. To understand the genetic basis of obesity better, here we conduct a genome-wide association study and Metabochip meta-analysis of body mass index (BMI), a measure commonly used to define obesity and assess adiposity, in up to 339,224 individuals. This analysis identifies 97 BMI-associated loci (P < 5 × 10−8), 56 of which are novel. Five loci demonstrate clear evidence of several independent association signals, and many loci have significant effects on other metabolic phenotypes. The 97 loci account for ~2.7% of BMI variation, and genome-wide estimates suggest that common variation accounts for >20% of BMI variation. Pathway analyses provide strong support for a role of the central nervous system in obesity susceptibility and implicate new genes and pathways, including those related to synaptic function, glutamate signalling, insulin secretion/action, energy metabolism, lipid biology and adipogenesis.

Directional dominance on stature and cognition in diverse human populations

Homozygosity has long been associated with rare, often devastating, Mendelian disorders1, and Darwin was one of the first to recognize that inbreeding reduces evolutionary fitness2. However, the effect of the more distant parental relatedness that is common in modern human populations is less well understood. Genomic data now allow us to investigate the effects of homozygosity on traits of public health importance by observing contiguous homozygous segments (runs of homozygosity), which are inferred to be homozygous along their complete length. Given the low levels of genome-wide homozygosity prevalent in most human populations, information is required on very large numbers of people to provide sufficient power3, 4. Here we use runs of homozygosity to study 16 health-related quantitative traits in 354,224 individuals from 102 cohorts, and find statistically significant associations between summed runs of homozygosity and four complex traits: height, forced expiratory lung volume in one second, general cognitive ability and educational attainment (P < 1 × 10−300, 2.1 × 10−6, 2.5 × 10−10 and 1.8 × 10−10, respectively). In each case, increased homozygosity was associated with decreased trait value, equivalent to the offspring of first cousins being 1.2 cm shorter and having 10 months’ less education. Similar effect sizes were found across four continental groups and populations with different degrees of genome-wide homozygosity, providing evidence that homozygosity, rather than confounding, directly contributes to phenotypic variance. Contrary to earlier reports in substantially smaller samples5, 6, no evidence was seen of an influence of genome-wide homozygosity on blood pressure and low density lipoprotein cholesterol, or ten other cardio-metabolic traits. Since directional dominance is predicted for traits under directional evolutionary selection7, this study provides evidence that increased stature and cognitive function have been positively selected in human evolution, whereas many important risk factors for late-onset complex diseases may not have been.

Pattern recognition and cellular immune responses to novel Mycobacterium tuberculosis-antigens in individuals from Belarus

Background: Tuberculosis (TB) is an enduring health problem worldwide and the emerging threat of multidrug resistant (MDR) TB and extensively drug resistant (XDR) TB is of particular concern. A better understanding of biomarkers associated with TB will aid to guide the development of better targets for TB diagnosis and for the development of improved TB vaccines. Methods: Recombinant proteins (n = 7) and peptide pools (n = 14) from M. tuberculosis (M.tb) antigens associated with M.tb pathogenicity, modification of cell lipids or cellular metabolism, were used to compare T cell immune responses defined by IFN-gamma production using a whole blood assay (WBA) from i) patients with TB, ii) individuals recovered from TB and iii) individuals exposed to TB without evidence of clinical TB infection from Minsk, Belarus. Results: We identified differences in M.tb target peptide recognition between the test groups, i.e. a frequent recognition of antigens associated with lipid metabolism, e.g. cyclopropane fatty acyl phospholipid synthase. The pattern of peptide recognition was broader in blood from healthy individuals and those recovered from TB as compared to individuals suffering from pulmonary TB. Detection of biologically relevant M.tb targets was confirmed by staining for intracellular cytokines (IL-2, TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma) in T cells from non-human primates (NHPs) after BCG vaccination. Conclusions: PBMCs from healthy individuals and those recovered from TB recognized a broader spectrum of M.tb antigens as compared to patients with TB. The nature of the pattern recognition of a broad panel of M.tb antigens will devise better strategies to identify improved diagnostics gauging previous exposure to M.tb; it may also guide the development of improved TB-vaccines.

兴山龙门河地区的植物群落与物种多样性研究

龙门河地区地处湖北省的西部，神农架的南坡，处于中亚热带向北亚热带过渡的地带。对其植物与植物群落的研究得到如下结果： 龙门河地区共有维管植物160科724属1737种，其中种了植物140科692属共1686种。其植物区系有显著的温带性，温带分布属共380属，占总属数的54.9%，这可能和该地区的地理位置，海拔及人为活动的影响有关，该地区的植物区系还具有古老性，特有属丰富特点，且有较多的珍稀濒危植物分布。 龙门河地区的植被共划分三个自然植被型共16个群系。在高海拔地区保存有较原始的落叶阔叶林，低海拔地区多为人为破坏后的次生类型。这些植被类型随环境条件的变化呈现较有规律的分布，依照其垂直分布的情况，可以将该地区植被划为三个带，即常绿阔叶林带低于海拔900(-1300)m;常绿落叶阔叶混交林位于海拔900(-1300)-600m之间;落叶阔叶林带在海拔1600(-1300)-2200m之间，无针叶林带在龙门河地区分布。应用TWINSPAN和DCA程序对各调查样地进行数量分类和排序结果说明，植物群落的分布与环境因子明显相关，但排序轴不能用海拔等单个的因子来解释。对各群落乔木层的Gleason丰富度指数，Shannon-Wiener指数及Pielou均匀度指数对比后发现，各种指数在不同的群落之间及不同海拔高度上没有明显的规律，这可能是由于人类活动混淆了群落成分及结构的结果。 锐齿槲栎林是神农架地区一种重要的落叶阔叶林，其分布广泛，保存较好。通过对锐齿槲栎种群大小结构的研究发现，中等大小的锐齿槲栎个体数量较多，幼苗与幼树的数量在不同样地间变化很大，其大小结构分布图中多有一定程度的缺失。锐齿槲栎种群多呈现聚集分布，不同的尺度下其聚集程序不同。在大多数尺度下，幼苗幼树的聚集程度比相同尺度下成体的聚集程序高。幼苗更新是锐齿槲栎更新的一种主要形式，其幼苗的出现与林窗的形成有密切的关系。在锐齿槲栎幼苗成长为幼树的过程中，同于种内与种间竞争的影响。导致了许多幼树的死亡。正是由于林窗形成等干扰因素的影响才使锐齿槲栎幼树得以进入群落上层。

Extracellular phosphatases produced by phytoplankton and other sources in shallow eutrophic lakes (Wuhan, China): taxon-specific versus bulk activity

Extracellular phosphatases are an important part of the phosphorus cycle in aquatic environments. Phosphatase activity (PA) in plankton was studied in seven subtropical shallow lakes of different exploitation management and trophic status in the urban area of Wuhan City. Bulk PA was rather high (range 1.1-11 mu mol l(-1) h(-1)), although concentrations of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) were also high (range 27 mu g P l(-1) to similar to 1.5 mg P l(-1)) in all lakes. Cell-associated extracellular PA in phytoplankton was detected using the fluorescence-labelled enzyme activity technique. Phytoplankton species partly contributed to the bulk PA. We found explicit differences in the presence of cell-associated phosphatase within the main phytoplankton groups; species belonging to Chlorophyta and Dinophyta were regularly phosphatase-positive, while Cyanophyta and Bacillariophyceae were phosphatase-negative in all but one case. Furthermore, there is a certain potential of extracellular phosphatases produced by heterotrophic nanoflagellates in most of the lakes. This new finding compromises the 'traditional' interpretation of bulk phosphatase data as being due to overall phytoplankton or bacterial P regeneration.

The role of cell-surface-bound phosphatases in species competition within natural phytoplankton assemblage: an in situ experiment

Despite it is widely acknowledged that the ability to hydrolyze dissolved organic matter using extracellular phosphatases is diverse in fresh water phytoplankton, the competition within single species related to presence and quantity of cell-surface-bound phosphatases has not been examined in natural conditions yet. Here, we studied phytoplankton species competition in a freshwater reservoir during an in situ experiment. A natural plankton community, with the exclusion of large zooplankton, was enclosed in permeable dialysis bags inside two large containers of different bioavailable phosphate concentrations. Phytoplankton species biomass and the abundance of bacteria were determined in purpose to compare the development of enclosed microbial communities. Total and cell-surface-bound phosphatase activities in the phytoplankton were investigated using the Fluorescently Labelled Enzyme Activity (FLEA) technique that allows for direct microscopic detection of phosphatase-positive cells and, with image cytometry, enables quantification of phosphatase hydrolytic capacity. Production of extracellular phosphatases was not completely inhibited or stopped in the phosphate-enriched environment, phytoplankton cells only showed the activity less often. Under the phosphate-nonenriched conditions, the production of phosphatases was enhanced, but active species did not proliferate amongst phytoplankton assemblage. Further, specific growth rates of the phosphatase-positive species in the non-enriched environment were lower than the same phosphatase-positive species in phosphate-enriched environment. Interestingly, the phosphatase-positive cells of Ankyra ancora increased their size in both treatments equally, although the population in phosphate-enriched environment grew much faster and the cell-specific phosphatase activity was lower. We hypothesize that brand new daughter cells had sufficient phosphorus reserves and therefore did not employ extracellular phosphatases until they matured and needed extra bioavailable phosphorus to support their metabolism before cell division. Based on presented in situ experiment, we propose that the ability to hydrolyze organic polymers and particles with cell-surface-hound phosphatases is advantageous for longer persistence of given population in a phosphate-scarce environment; although phosphatase-positive species cannot dominate the reservoir phytoplankton solely because of specific phosphorus-scavenging strategy.

Tudor staphylococcal nuclease is an evolutionarily conserved component of the programmed cell death degradome

Programmed cell death (PCD) is executed by proteases, which cleave diverse proteins thus modulating their biochemical and cellular functions. Proteases of the caspase family and hundreds of caspase substrates constitute a major part of the PCD degradome in animals(1,2). Plants lack close homologues of caspases, but instead possess an ancestral family of cysteine proteases, metacaspases(3,4). Although metacaspases are essential for PCD(5-7), their natural substrates remain unknown(4,8). Here we show that metacaspase mcII-Pa cleaves a phylogenetically conserved protein, TSN (Tudor staphylococcal nuclease), during both developmental and stress-induced PCD. TSN knockdown leads to activation of ectopic cell death during reproduction, impairing plant fertility. Surprisingly, human TSN (also known as p100 or SND1), a multifunctional regulator of gene expression(9-15), is cleaved by caspase-3 during apoptosis. This cleavage impairs the ability of TSN to activate mRNA splicing, inhibits its ribonuclease activity and is important for the execution of apoptosis. Our results establish TSN as the first biological substrate of metacaspase and demonstrate that despite the divergence of plants and animals from a common ancestor about one billion years ago and their use of distinct PCD pathways, both have retained a common mechanism to compromise cell viability through the cleavage of the same substrate, TSN.

Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies 11 new loci for anthropometric traits and provides insights into genetic architecture

Approaches exploiting trait distribution extremes may be used to identify loci associated with common traits, but it is unknown whether these loci are generalizable to the broader population. In a genome-wide search for loci associated with the upper versus the lower 5th percentiles of body mass index, height and waist-to-hip ratio, as well as clinical classes of obesity, including up to 263,407 individuals of European ancestry, we identified 4 new loci (IGFBP4, H6PD, RSRC1 and PPP2R2A) influencing height detected in the distribution tails and 7 new loci (HNF4G, RPTOR, GNAT2, MRPS33P4, ADCY9, HS6ST3 and ZZZ3) for clinical classes of obesity. Further, we find a large overlap in genetic structure and the distribution of variants between traits based on extremes and the general population and little etiological heterogeneity between obesity subgroups.