Bioremediation of PAHs - Limitations and soultions

Introduction 1.1 Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the environment Worldwide industrial and agricultural developments have released a large number of natural and synthetic hazardous compounds into the environment due to careless waste disposal, illegal waste dumping and accidental spills. As a result, there are numerous sites in the world that require cleanup of soils and groundwater. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one of the major groups of these contaminants (Da Silva et al., 2003). PAHs constitute a diverse class of organic compounds consisting of two or more aromatic rings with various structural configurations (Prabhu and Phale, 2003). Being a derivative of benzene, PAHs are thermodynamically stable. In addition, these chemicals tend to adhere to particle surfaces, such as soils, because of their low water solubility and strong hydrophobicity, and this results in greater persistence under natural conditions. This persistence coupled with their potential carcinogenicity makes PAHs problematic environmental contaminants (Cerniglia, 1992; Sutherland, 1992). PAHs are widely found in high concentrations at many industrial sites, particularly those associated with petroleum, gas production and wood preserving industries (Wilson and Jones, 1993). 1.2 Remediation technologies Conventional techniques used for the remediation of soil polluted with organic contaminants include excavation of the contaminated soil and disposal to a landfill or capping - containment - of the contaminated areas of a site. These methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and containment method is only an interim solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitoring and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants, if possible, or transform them into harmless substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (for example, base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). However, these methods have significant disadvantages, principally their technological complexity, high cost , and the lack of public acceptance. Bioremediation, on the contrast, is a promising option for the complete removal and destruction of contaminants. 1.3 Bioremediation of PAH contaminated soil & groundwater Bioremediation is the use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to degrade or detoxify hazardous wastes into harmless substances such as carbon dioxide, water and cell biomass Most PAHs are biodegradable unter natural conditions (Da Silva et al., 2003; Meysami and Baheri, 2003) and bioremediation for cleanup of PAH wastes has been extensively studied at both laboratory and commercial levels- It has been implemented at a number of contaminated sites, including the cleanup of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989, the Mega Borg spill off the Texas coast in 1990 and the Burgan Oil Field, Kuwait in 1994 (Purwaningsih, 2002). Different strategies for PAH bioremediation, such as in situ , ex situ or on site bioremediation were developed in recent years. In situ bioremediation is a technique that is applied to soil and groundwater at the site without removing the contaminated soil or groundwater, based on the provision of optimum conditions for microbiological contaminant breakdown.. Ex situ bioremediation of PAHs, on the other hand, is a technique applied to soil and groundwater which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). Hazardous contaminants are converted in controlled bioreactors into harmless compounds in an efficient manner. 1.4 Bioavailability of PAH in the subsurface Frequently, PAH contamination in the environment is occurs as contaminants that are sorbed onto soilparticles rather than in phase (NAPL, non aqueous phase liquids). It is known that the biodegradation rate of most PAHs sorbed onto soil is far lower than rates measured in solution cultures of microorganisms with pure solid pollutants (Alexander and Scow, 1989; Hamaker, 1972). It is generally believed that only that fraction of PAHs dissolved in the solution can be metabolized by microorganisms in soil. The amount of contaminant that can be readily taken up and degraded by microorganisms is defined as bioavailability (Bosma et al., 1997; Maier, 2000). Two phenomena have been suggested to cause the low bioavailability of PAHs in soil (Danielsson, 2000). The first one is strong adsorption of the contaminants to the soil constituents which then leads to very slow release rates of contaminants to the aqueous phase. Sorption is often well correlated with soil organic matter content (Means, 1980) and significantly reduces biodegradation (Manilal and Alexander, 1991). The second phenomenon is slow mass transfer of pollutants, such as pore diffusion in the soil aggregates or diffusion in the organic matter in the soil. The complex set of these physical, chemical and biological processes is schematically illustrated in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, biodegradation processes are taking place in the soil solution while diffusion processes occur in the narrow pores in and between soil aggregates (Danielsson, 2000). Seemingly contradictory studies can be found in the literature that indicate the rate and final extent of metabolism may be either lower or higher for sorbed PAHs by soil than those for pure PAHs (Van Loosdrecht et al., 1990). These contrasting results demonstrate that the bioavailability of organic contaminants sorbed onto soil is far from being well understood. Besides bioavailability, there are several other factors influencing the rate and extent of biodegradation of PAHs in soil including microbial population characteristics, physical and chemical properties of PAHs and environmental factors (temperature, moisture, pH, degree of contamination). Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing possible rate-limiting processes during bioremediation of hydrophobic organic contaminants in a contaminated soil-water system (not to scale) (Danielsson, 2000). 1.5 Increasing the bioavailability of PAH in soil Attempts to improve the biodegradation of PAHs in soil by increasing their bioavailability include the use of surfactants , solvents or solubility enhancers.. However, introduction of synthetic surfactant may result in the addition of one more pollutant. (Wang and Brusseau, 1993).A study conducted by Mulder et al. showed that the introduction of hydropropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HPCD), a well-known PAH solubility enhancer, significantly increased the solubilization of PAHs although it did not improve the biodegradation rate of PAHs (Mulder et al., 1998), indicating that further research is required in order to develop a feasible and efficient remediation method. Enhancing the extent of PAHs mass transfer from the soil phase to the liquid might prove an efficient and environmentally low-risk alternative way of addressing the problem of slow PAH biodegradation in soil.

Nuovi meccanismi di regolazione dell'autoimmunità nella piastrinopenia immune

La Piastinopenia Immune (PTI) è una patologia autoimmune ad eziologia ignota caratterizzata da piastrinopenia. I linfociti T regolatori (Tregs) sono coinvolti nei meccanismi di tolleranza immunologica e agiscono regolando l’attività delle cellule T autoreattive e delle cellule dendritiche (DCs). Viceversa, le DCs, che esprimono Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), partecipano al mantenimento della tolleranza agli auto-antigeni attraverso l’espansione dei Tregs. Inoltre, recenti studi hanno dimostrato che i linfociti T helper 17 (Th17) sono coinvolti nell’autoimmunità e che l’espressione di Interleuchina (IL)-17 è associata a numerose patologie autoimmuni. Il ruolo dell’interazione fra DCs e Tregs ed il ruolo dei Th17 nella patogenesi della PTI non sono mai stati studiati in maniera approfondita. Gli obiettivi principali di questa tesi sono stati: a) caratterizzare fenotipicamente e funzionalmente i linfociti Tregs e DCs; b) valutare il ruolo patogenetico dell’interazione tra Tregs e DCs; c) quantificare i Th17 circolanti. I risultati dimostrano che: 1) il numero dei Tregs circolanti dei pazienti, identificati tramite i marcatori Foxp3 e CD127, è significativamente ridotto rispetto alla controparte normale; 2) la conversione in vitro delle cellule CD4+CD25- in linfociti Tregs (CD4+CD25+Foxp3+) dopo stimolazione con DCs mature è significativamente ridotta nei pazienti rispetto ai controlli; 3) sia l’espressione dell’enzima IDO nelle DCs mature (mRNA) che i livelli di chinurenine prodotte (indice di attività enzimatica) sono risultati significativamente ridotti nei pazienti rispetto alla controparte normale. Questi risultati suggeriscono quindi che il ridotto numero dei Tregs circolanti nei pazienti con PTI può essere, almeno in parte, attribuito alla scarsa capacità di conversione delle DCs, in quanto tali cellule esprimono meno IDO. I risultati dimostrano inoltre che: 1) i Tregs dei pazienti con PTI hanno una capacità soppressoria che è significativamente inferiore rispetto ai soggetti normali; tale dato è stato confermato dal dosaggio di IFN- nel surnatante della coltura; 2) i Tregs di pazienti con PTI non sono in grado di inibire la maturazione delle DCs, a differenza di quanto avviene nei soggetti sani: infatti, l’espressione delle molecole costimolatorie CD80 e CD86 sulle DCs è risultata invariata in seguito a cocoltura con DCs immature; 3) il dosaggio delle citochine nel surnatante delle cocolture dimostra che la concentrazione di IL-10 e IL-6 è significativamente ridotta nei pazienti rispetto ai controlli. La scarsa abilità dei Tregs di inibire la maturazione delle DCs e l’alterato pattern di secrezione di citochine potrebbero quindi contribuire all’ insorgenza del fenotipo più maturo delle DCs nei pazienti con PTI. I linfociti Th17 circolanti di pazienti e controlli sono stati identificati in citofluorimetria come cellule CD4+CD161+CD196+. Da tale analisi è emerso che la frequenza dei Th17 circolanti non è significativamente diversa nei due gruppi. Questi dati dimostrano quindi che nella PTI l’interazione bidirezionale tra Tregs e DCs risulta alterata e svolge un ruolo patogenetico, in quanto, da un lato, ci sono Tregs con un deficit numerico e funzionale e, dall’altro, DCs con maggiore capacità immunogenica. Il numero dei Th17 non risulta invece alterato.

Oxylipins biosynthesis in Lactobacillus helveticus in the presence of oxidative stress

This PhD thesis is aimed at studying the possible pathways and the mechanisms that can trigger oxylipins biosynthesis, and particularly that of short chain aldehydes and alcohols, in Lactobacillus helveticus, also in the presence of oxidative stress, using a totally labelled linoleic acid as precursor. In plants and fungi these molecules, involved in defence mechanisms against pathogens and in communication systems, derive from the oxidation of cellular unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) and their accumulation is associated with stress exposure. Since some oxylipins are produced also by lactobacilli, it is possible to hypothesize that a metabolic pathway from UFAs to oxylipins, similar to what happens in plants and fungi, is present also in lactic acid bacteria. The results obtained pointed out that some volatile molecules are the result of UFAs catabolism, since they appear only when cells are incubated in their presence. Labelled linoleic acid is integrated in the membrane and subsequently transformed into aldehydes and alcohols, whose extent and carbon atoms number depend on stress exposure. The enzymes responsible for this metabolic pathway in plants and fungi (e.g. lipoxygenase, dioxygenase) seem to be absent in Lactobacillus helveticus and in other lactobacilli. Proteomic analyses show the over expression of many proteins, including thioredoxin reductase (part of the bacterial oxidative defence system), mainly in cells grown with linoleic acid without oxidative stress exposure, confirming that linoleic acid itself induces oxidative stress. 6 general oxidoreductases (class including dioxygenases and peroxidase) were found and therefore a deeper investigation on them could be productive in elucidating all steps involved in oxylipins biosynthesis in bacteria. Due to the multiple role of oxylipins (flavouring agents, antimicrobial compounds and interspecific signalling molecules) the identification of genes involved and regulating factors should have an important biotechnological impact, also allowing the overproduction of selected bioactive molecules.

Espressione dell'Enzima ad Azione Immunoregolatoria Indoleamina 2,3-Diossigenasi nella Leucemia Mieloide Acuta dell'Adulto: correlazioni Clinico-Biologiche

L’enzima IDO interviene nella via di degradazione del triptofano, essenziale per la vita cellulare; l’iperespressione di IDO favorisce la creazione di un microambiente immunotollerante. Nelle LAM IDO è funzionalmente attivo nelle cellule blastiche e determina l’acquisizione di un fenotipo regolatorio da parte delle cellule T alloreattive; l’espressione della proteina aumenta in modo consensuale con l’evoluzione clinica della patologia. Scopo della Tesi è indagare l’esistenza di una correlazione tra l’iperespressione di IDO da parte delle cellule leucemiche, le caratteristiche di rischio alla diagnosi e l’outcome dei pazienti. Sono stati esaminati 45 pazienti adulti affetti da LAM afferiti all’Istituto di Ematologia di Bologna. I pazienti sono stati stratificati a seconda di: età di insorgenza della leucemia, secondarietà a Mielodisplasia o radio chemioterapia, iperleucocitosi, citogenetica, biologia molecolare (sono state valutate le alterazioni a carico dei geni FLT3 ed NPM). I pazienti sono stati analizzati per l’espressione del gene IDO mediante RT-PCR, seguita da Western Blot, allo scopo di stabilire la presenza di una proteina attiva; successivamente si è proceduto a verificare l’esistenza di una correlazione tra l’espressione di IDO e le caratteristiche di rischio alla diagnosi per identificare una relazione tra l’espressione del gene ed un subset di pazienti a prognosi favorevole o sfavorevole. Dei 45 pazienti adulti affetti da LAM il 28,9% è risultato negativo per l’espressione di IDO, mentre il rimanente 71,1% è risultato positivo ed è stato suddiviso in tre ulteriori categorie, in base ai livelli di espressione. I dati non sembrano al momento suggerire l’esistenza di una correlazione tra l’espressione di IDO e le caratteristiche di rischio alla diagnosi. Nel gruppo di pazienti ad elevata espressione di IDO si riscontra un rate di resistenza alla chemioterapia di induzione più elevato, con una quota di pazienti resistenti pari al 71,4%, contro il 23,1% nel gruppo di pazienti IDO-negativi.

Characterization of the genetic control of fruit flesh color in peach

The analysis of a carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase gene in a pool of peach cultivars revealed the existence of a functional allele (W1), associated with the white flesh trait, and three independent mutations associated with the yellow phenotype: a 2 bp insertion within a repetitive sequence (y1), a large transposable element within the intron (y2) and a single base substitution generating a premature stop codon (y3). Based on these evidences, the yellow flesh phenotype seems to have arisen from at least three independent mutational events.

Inhibition allergenspezifischer Immunantworten im Mausmodell der Typ-I Allergie nach biolistischer Vakzinierung mit allergenkodierenden Plasmiden in Kombination mit für immunmodulatorische Moleküle kodierender Plasmid-DNA

Die Induktion von Toleranz spielt bei der Inhibition allergischer Immunreaktionen eine wichtige Rolle. Hierbei ist die Induktion regulatorischer T Zellen (Treg) von großer Bedeutung. Da zu einer erfolgreichen Behandlung von allergischen Erkrankungen bisher nur wenige Therapiemöglichkeiten zur Verfügung stehen wie die spezifische Immuntherapie (SIT), die allerdings nicht immer zum Erfolg führt, ist es wichtig neue Therapieformen zu entwickeln. rnIn dieser Arbeit wurde daher die biolistische DNA-Immunisierung mit Kombinations-Vakzinen bestehend aus einem allergenkodierenden Plasmid (βGalaktosidase (βGal)) in Kombination mit einem Plasmid, welches für ein immunmodulatorisches Molekül kodiert (Indolamin-2,3-Dioxygenase (IDO), Transforming Growth Factor beta (TGF-β) oder Interleukin-10 (IL-10)), durchgeführt und im Mausmodell der allergeninduzierten IgE-vermittelten Atemwegsinflammation auf ihre Wirksamkeit untersucht. Die Expression des Allergens zusammen mit dem immunregulatorischen Molekül in transfizierten Dendritischen Zellen (DCs) sollte zu einer Induktion von Treg führen und somit eine Suppression der Immunantwort bewirken. rnIn den Versuchen wurde zunächst der Effekt einer Transgenexpression unter der Kontrolle des ubiquitären CMV-Promotors mit dem der Transgenexpression unter der Kontrolle des Fascin-Promotors, der eine Genxpression spezifisch in DCs erlaubt, verglichen. Hierbei stellte sich heraus, dass es wichtig ist die Expression des Antigens mit Hilfe des Fascin-Promotors auf DCs zu beschränken. Einzig in diesem Fall konnte nach der Vakzinierung ein inhibitorischer Effekt auf die Entwicklung einer Atemwegshyperreaktivität durch Expression des Immunmodulatoren IDO beobachtet werden. Es zeigte sich auch, dass es von Vorteil ist, wenn das immunregulatorische Molekül unter Verwendung des CMV-Promotors in allen transfizierten Zellen exprimiert wird. Dies bewirkt, dass IDO in ausreichenden Konzentrationen vorhanden ist. rnDie Expression von βGal unter der Kontrolle des Fascin-Promotors (pFascin-βGal) in Kombination mit der Expression der Moleküle IL-10, TGF-β oder IDO unter Kontrolle des CMV-Promotors (pCMV-IL-10, pCMV-TGFβ, pCMV-IDO) bewirkte eine Immunsupprimierung, die sich in einer inhibierten Produktion antigenspezifischer Antikörper, einer verminderten Zytokin-Produktion, einer reduzierten Induktion zytotoxischer T-Zellen und in einer Inhibition der allergeninduzierten Atemwegshyperreaktivität zeigte, im Vergleich zu einer Vakzinierung mit pFascin-βGal in Kombination mit einem Kontroll-Plasmid. Bei nachfolgender Proteinsensibilisierung blieben diese Effekte jedoch nicht bestehen. Einzig durch Vakzinierung mit IL-10-kodierenden Plasmiden konnte eine moderate Verminderung der Atemwegsreaktivität nachgewiesen werden. rnIn einem therapeutischen Modell der Atemwegsinflammation, in dem die Mäuse vor der DNA-Immunisierung mit dem Protein sensibilisiert wurden, wurde demonstriert, dass im Vergleich zu Mäusen, die nur mit dem Protein sensibilisiert wurden, eine DNA-Immunisierung mit pFascin-βGal aber auch mit pCMV-βGal einen inhibierenden Einfluss auf die Entwicklung einer Atemwegsinflammation hat. Eine weitere Reduktion der Atemwegsreaktivität durch eine kombinierte Vakzinierung mit pCMV-IDO wurde nur erreicht, wenn βGal unter der Kontrolle des Fascin-Promotors exprimiert wurde, nicht aber unter Kontrolle des CMV-Promotors.rn

Antigenspezifische DNA-Immunisierung in Kombination mit IDO-kodierenden Plasmiden zur Therapie der experimentellen Typ I-Allergie

Derzeit stellt die allergenspezifische Immuntherapie die einzige nicht allein antisymptomatische Behandlungsform zur langfristigen Therapie von Typ I-Allergien dar, welche grundlegende Änderungen im immunologischen Geschehen induziert. Sie ist jedoch verbesserungswürdig in Bezug auf Behandlungsdauer, Erfolgschancen und Nebenwirkungen. Daher wurde in dieser Arbeit eine Strategie zur Therapie von Typ I-Allergien entwickelt und evaluiert, welche auf der Inhibition allergenspezifischer T-Zellen durch Dendritische Zellen (DC), die selektiv nach DNA-Immunisierung sowohl das relevante Allergen als auch Indolamin 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) konstitutiv produzieren, basiert. IDO ist ein Enzym aus dem Tryptophan-Stoffwechsel, dessen Produktion durch DC einen lokalen immunsuppressiven Mechanismus induziert und in verschiedenen Situationen mit der Induktion peripherer Toleranz assoziiert ist. Zunächst wurden Plasmide hergestellt, die entweder IDO alleine oder IDO zusammen mit dem Antigen unter der Kontrolle des ubiquitär aktiven CMV- bzw. des DC-spezifischen Fascin-Promotors kodieren. Die Überprüfung der IDO-Expression durch die monocistronischen Plasmide anhand von Transfektionsexperimenten in vitro ergab, dass die IDO-Expression unter der Kontrolle des CMV-Promotors sehr viel stärker ausfiel als unter der Kontrolle des Fascin-Promotors. Nach Transfektion mit den bicistronischen Vektoren, in denen die Transgene für das Antigen und IDO durch eine IRES-Sequenz verbunden waren, war die IDO-Expression jedoch insgesamt sehr schwach. Im Rahmen der Überprüfung der Funktionalität der IDO-Expressionplasmide in vivo unter Verwendung der Genpistole wurden daher lediglich Plasmide getestet, die alleine IDO unter der Kontrolle des CMV-Promotors bzw. des Fascin-Promotors kodieren. Auch in vivo wurde eine stärkere IDO-Expression nach biolistischer Transfektion mit solchen Vektoren beobachtet, in denen der CMV-Promotor zur Expressionskontrolle verwendet wurde. Die Analyse des Einflusses einer Koexpression von IDO auf die durch biolistische Immunisierung mit einem antigenkodierenden Vektor induzierte systemische Immunantwort offenbarte einen inhibitorischer Effekt für den Fall, dass die Antigenproduktion mittels des Fascin-Promotors auf DC fokussiert war und die Expression des koapplizierten IDO-Transgens unter der Kontrolle des CMV-Promotors stand. In diesem Fall wurde eine Reduktion der antigenspezifischen IgG1- und IgG2a-Produktion, eine verringerte Sekretion von IFN-y durch restimulierte Milz- und Lymphknotenzellen sowie eine Reduktion der Zahl antigenspezifischer CD8+ Effektor-T-Zellen nachgewiesen. Im Mausmodell der IgE-vermittelten Typ I-Allergie wurde weiterhin gezeigt, dass nach prophylaktischer biolistischer Vakzinierung unter Verwendung dieser Vektorkombination eine Inhibition der durch die Vakzinierung bedingten antigenspezifischen Th1-Immunantwort ausgelöst wurde. Die Suppression der Th2-Antwort, welche durch Transfektion mit dem Antigenkodierenden Vektor unter Kontrolle des Fascin-Promotors bewirkt wurde, wurde durch Kotransfektion mit den IDO-kodierenden Vektoren aufrecht erhalten.

Antioxidant activities of some tryptophan metabolites: possible implication for inflammatory diseases

The antioxidant properties of tryptophan and some of its oxidative metabolites were examined by measuring how efficiently they inhibited peroxyl radical-mediated oxidation of phosphatidylcholine liposomes and B-phycoerythrin. Low micromolar concentrations of 5-hydroxytryptophan, 3-hydroxykynurenine, xanthurenic acid, or 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid, but not their corresponding nonhydroxylated metabolic precursors, scavenged peroxyl radicals with high efficiency. In particular, 3-hydroxykynurenine and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid protected B-phycoerythrin from peroxyl radical-mediated oxidative damage more effectively than equimolar amounts of either ascorbate or Trolox (a water-soluble analog of vitamin E). Enzyme activities involved or related to oxidative tryptophan metabolism, as well as endogenous concentrations of tryptophan and its metabolites, were determined within tissues of mice suffering from acute viral pneumonia. Infection resulted in a 100-fold induction of pulmonary indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.17) as reported [Yoshida, R., Urade, Y., Tokuda, M. ; Hayaishi, O. (1979) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76, 4084-4086]. This was accompanied by a 16- and 3-fold increase in the levels of lung kynurenine and 3-hydroxykynurenine, respectively. In contrast, endogenous concentrations of tryptophan and xanthurenic acid did not increase and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid could not be detected. The activity of the superoxide anion (O2-.)-producing enzyme xanthine oxidase increased 3.5-fold during infection while that of the O2-.-removing superoxide dismutase decreased to 50% of control levels. These results plus the known requirement of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase for superoxide anion for catalytic activity suggest that viral pneumonia is accompanied by oxidative stress and that induction of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase may represent a local antioxidant defence against this and possibly other types of inflammatory diseases.

The additional facet of immunoscore: immunoprofiling as a possible predictive tool for cancer treatment

Recent investigations of the tumor microenvironment have shown that many tumors are infiltrated by inflammatory and lymphocytic cells. Increasing evidence suggests that the number, type and location of these tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in primary tumors has prognostic value, and this has led to the development of an 'immunoscore. As well as providing useful prognostic information, the immunoscore concept also has the potential to help predict response to treatment, thereby improving decision- making with regard to choice of therapy. This predictive aspect of the tumor microenvironment forms the basis for the concept of immunoprofiling, which can be described as 'using an individual's immune system signature (or profile) to predict that patient's response to therapy' The immunoprofile of an individual can be genetically determined or tumor-induced (and therefore dynamic). Ipilimumab is the first in a series of immunomodulating antibodies and has been shown to be associated with improved overall survival in patients with advanced melanoma. Other immunotherapies in development include anti-programmed death 1 protein (nivolumab), anti-PD-ligand 1, anti-CD137 (urelumab), and anti-OX40. Biomarkers that can be used as predictive factors for these treatments have not yet been clinically validated. However, there is already evidence that the tumor microenvironment can have a predictive role, with clinical activity of ipilimumab related to high baseline expression of the immune-related genes FoxP3 and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase and an increase in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. These biomarkers could represent the first potential proposal for an immunoprofiling panel in patients for whom anti-CTLA-4 therapy is being considered, although prospective data are required. In conclusion, the evaluation of systemic and local immunological biomarkers could offer useful prognostic information and facilitate clinical decision making. The challenge will be to identify the individual immunoprofile of each patient and the consequent choice of optimal therapy or combination of therapies to be used.

rIFN-gamma-mediated growth suppression of platinum-sensitive and -resistant ovarian tumor cell lines not dependent upon arginase inhibition.

BACKGROUND: Arginine metabolism in tumor cell lines can be influenced by various cytokines, including recombinant human interferon-gamma (rIFN-gamma), a cytokine that shows promising clinical activity in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). METHODS: We examined EOC cell lines for the expression of arginase in an enzymatic assay and for transcripts of arginase I and II, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The effects of rIFN-gamma on arginase activity and on tumor cell growth inhibition were determined by measuring [3H]thymidine uptake. RESULTS: Elevated arginase activity was detected in 5 of 8 tumor cell lines, and analysis at the transcriptional level showed that arginase II was involved but arginase I was not. rIFN-gamma reduced arginase activity in 3 EOC cell lines but increased activity in the 2008 cell line and its platinum-resistant subline, 2008.C13. iNOS transcripts were not detected in rIFN-gamma-treated or untreated cell lines. In contrast, IDO activity was induced or increased by rIFN-gamma. Suppression of arginase activity by rIFN-gamma in certain cell lines suggested that such inhibition might contribute to its antiproliferative effects. However, supplementation of the medium with polyamine pathway products did not interfere with the growth-inhibitory effects of rIFN-gamma EOC cells. CONCLUSIONS: Increased arginase activity, specifically identified with arginase II, is present in most of the tested EOC cell lines. rIFN-gamma inhibits or stimulates arginase activity in certain EOC cell lines, though the decrease in arginase activity does not appear to be associated with the in vitro antiproliferative activity of rIFN-gamma. Since cells within the stroma of EOC tissues could also contribute to arginine metabolism following treatment with rIFN-gamma or rIFN-gamma-inducers, it would be helpful to examine these effects in vivo.

Role of NonO-histone interaction in TNFalpha-suppressed prolyl-4-hydroxylase alpha1.

Inflammation is a key process in cardiovascular diseases. The extracellular matrix (ECM) of the vasculature is a major target of inflammatory cytokines, and TNFalpha regulates ECM metabolism by affecting collagen production. In this study, we have examined the pathways mediating TNFalpha-induced suppression of prolyl-4 hydroxylase alpha1 (P4Halpha1), the rate-limiting isoform of P4H responsible for procollagen hydroxylation, maturation, and organization. Using human aortic smooth muscle cells, we found that TNFalpha activated the MKK4-JNK1 pathway, which induced histone (H) 4 lysine 12 acetylation within the TNFalpha response element in the P4Halpha1 promoter. The acetylated-H4 then recruited a transcription factor, NonO, which, in turn, recruited HDACs and induced H3 lysine 9 deacetylation, thereby inhibiting transcription of the P4Halpha1 promoter. Furthermore, we found that TNFalpha oxidized DJ-1, which may be essential for the NonO-P4Halpha1 interaction because treatment with gene specific siRNA to knockout DJ-1 eliminated the TNFalpha-induced NonO-P4Halpha1 interaction and its suppression. Our findings may be relevant to aortic aneurysm and dissection and the stability of the fibrous cap of atherosclerotic plaque in which collagen metabolism is important in arterial remodeling. Defining this cytokine-mediated regulatory pathway may provide novel molecular targets for therapeutic intervention in preventing plaque rupture and acute coronary occlusion.

The kynurenine pathway is involved in bacterial meningitis.

BackgroundBacterial meningitis (BM) is characterized by an intense host inflammatory reaction, which contributes to the development of brain damage and neuronal sequelae. Activation of the kynurenine (KYN) pathway (KP) has been reported in various neurological diseases as a consequence of inflammation. Previously, the KP was shown to be activated in animal models of BM, and the association of the SNP AADAT¿+¿401C/T (kynurenine aminotransferase II - KAT II) with the host immune response to BM has been described. The aim of this study was to investigate the involvement of the KP during BM in humans by assessing the concentrations of KYN metabolites in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of BM patients and their relationship with the inflammatory response compared to aseptic meningitis (AM) and non-meningitis (NM) groups.MethodsThe concentrations of tryptophan (TRP), KYN, kynurenic acid (KYNA) and anthranilic acid (AA) were assessed by HPLC from CSF samples of patients hospitalized in the Giselda Trigueiro Hospital in Natal (Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil). The KYN/TRP ratio was used as an index of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) activity, and cytokines were measured using a multiplex cytokine assay. The KYNA level was also analyzed in relation to AADAT¿+¿401C/T genotypes.ResultsIn CSF from patients with BM, elevated levels of KYN, KYNA, AA, IDO activity and cytokines were observed. The cytokines INF-¿ and IL-1Ra showed a positive correlation with IDO activity, and TNF-¿ and IL-10 were positively correlated with KYN and KYNA, respectively. Furthermore, the highest levels of KYNA were associated with the AADAT¿+¿401 C/T variant allele.ConclusionThis study suggests a downward modulatory effect of the KP on CSF inflammation during BM.

A copper-induced quinone degradation pathway provides protection against combined copper/quinone stress in Lactococcus lactis IL1403.

Quinones are ubiquitous in the environment. They occur naturally but are also in widespread use in human and industrial activities. Quinones alone are relatively benign to bacteria, but in combination with copper, they become toxic by a mechanism that leads to intracellular thiol depletion. Here, it was shown that the yahCD-yaiAB operon of Lactococcus lactis IL1403 provides resistance to combined copper/quinone stress. The operon is under the control of CopR, which also regulates expression of the copRZA copper resistance operon as well as other L. lactis genes. Expression of the yahCD-yaiAB operon is induced by copper but not by quinones. Two of the proteins encoded by the operon appear to play key roles in alleviating quinone/copper stress: YaiB is a flavoprotein that converts p-benzoquinones to less toxic hydroquinones, using reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) as reductant; YaiA is a hydroquinone dioxygenase that converts hydroquinone putatively to 4-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde in an oxygen-consuming reaction. Hydroquinone and methylhydroquinone are both substrates of YaiA. Deletion of yaiB causes increased sensitivity of L. lactis to quinones and complete growth arrest under combined quinone and copper stress. Copper induction of the yahCD-yaiAB operon offers protection to copper/quinone toxicity and could provide a growth advantage to L. lactis in some environments.

Role of two UDP-Glycosyltransferases from the L group of arabidopsis in resistance against pseudomonas syringae

The role of the salicylic acid (SA) glycosides SA 2-O-β-D-glucose (SAG), SA glucose ester (SGE) and the glycosyl transferases UGT74F1 and UGT74F2 in the establishment of basal resistance of Arabidopsis against Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000 (Pst) was investigated. Both mutants altered in the corresponding glycosyl transferases (ugt74f1 and ugt74f2) were affected in their basal resistance against Pst. The mutant ugt74f1 showed enhanced susceptibility, while ugt74f2 showed enhanced resistance against the same pathogen. Both mutants have to some extent, altered levels of SAG and SGE compared to wild type plants, however, in response to the infection, ugt74f2 accumulated higher levels of free SA until 24 hpi compared to wild type plants while ugt74f1 accumulated lower SA levels. These SA levels correlated well with reduced expression in PR1 and EDS1 in ugt74f1. In contrast, ugt74f2 has enhanced expression of Enhanced Disease Susceptibility 1 (EDS1) but a strong reduction in the expression of several jasmonate (JA)-dependent genes. Bacterial infection interfered with the expression of Fatty Acid Desaturase (FAD), Lipoxygenase2 (LOX2), carboxyl methyltransferase1 (BSMT1) and 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED3) genes in ugt74f1, thus promoting an antagonistic effect with SA-signalling and leading to enhanced bacterial growth. UGT74F2 might be a target for bacterial effectors since bacterial mutants affected in effector synthesis were impaired in inducing UGT74F2 expression. These results suggest that UGT74F2 negatively influences the accumulation of free SA, hence leading to an increased susceptibility due to reduced SA levels and increased expression of the JA and ABA markers LOX-2, FAD and NCED-3.

Human graft-derived mesenchymal stromal cells potently suppress alloreactive T-cell responses

After organ transplantation, recipient T cells contribute to graft rejection. Mesenchymal stromal cells from the bone marrow (BM-MSCs) are known to suppress allogeneic T-cell responses, suggesting a possible clinical application of MSCs in organ transplantation. Human liver grafts harbor resident populations of MSCs (L-MSCs). We aimed to determine the immunosuppressive effects of these graft-derived MSCs on allogeneic T-cell responses and to compare these with the effects of BM-MSCs. BM-MSCs were harvested from aspirates and L-MSCs from liver graft perfusates. We cultured them for 21 days and compared their suppressive effects with the effects of BM-MSCs on allogeneic T-cell responses. Proliferation, cytotoxic degranulation, and interferon-gamma production of alloreactive T cells were more potently suppressed by L-MSCs than BM-MSCs. Suppression was mediated by both cell-cell contact and secreted factors. In addition, L-MSCs showed ex vivo a higher expression of PD-L1 than BM-MSCs, which was associated with inhibition of T-cell proliferation and cytotoxic degranulation in vitro. Blocking PD-L1 partly abrogated the inhibition of cytotoxic degranulation by L-MSCs. In addition, blocking indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase partly abrogated the inhibitive effects of L-MSCs, but not BM-MSCs, on T-cell proliferation. In conclusion, liver graft-derived MSC suppression of allogeneic T-cell responses is stronger than BM-MSCs, which may be related to in situ priming and mobilization from the graft. These graft-derived MSCs may therefore be relevant in transplantation by promoting allohyporesponsiveness.