Estudo do metabolismo energético hepático e da via de sinalização da grelina na obesidade induzida por dieta ocidental

A obesidade é um dos maiores problemas de saúde pública que cresce em todo o mundo, resultante de um desequilíbrio entre ingestão alimentar e gasto energético. Pode-se dizer que a obesidade é o principal fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de doenças crônicas de maior prevalência como dislipidemias, doenças cardiovasculares, diabetes do tipo 2 e esteatose hepática não alcóolica, acarretando na redução da qualidade e expectativa de vida. A Grelina é um hormônio sintetizado pelo estômago, que atua em diferentes tecidos através de um receptor específico (GHS-R1a), incluindo hipotálamo e tecidos periféricos, como o fígado. Esse hormônio está envolvido no comportamento alimentar e adiposidade, modulando o armazenamento ou utilização dos substratos energéticos no coração, músculo esquelético, adipócitos e fígado, além disso, revela-se de grande importância na manutenção do metabolismo energético hepático. Estes dados suportam a hipótese de que as vias de sinalização responsivas à grelina são um importante componente da regulação do metabolismo energético hepático e da homeostase glicêmica. O objetivo deste trabalho, foi estudar o metabolismo energético hepático e a sinalização da grelina em camundongos Swiss adultos obesos submetidos a dieta ocidental rica em gordura saturada e carboidratos simples. Avaliamos o efeito desta dieta a partir do 21 dia de idade (desmame) até o 133 dia destes animais, através de parâmetros biométricos e bioquímicos, avaliação histomorfológica, respirometria de alta resolução, conteúdo de glicogênio hepático e conteúdo de algumas proteínas envolvidas na sinalização de insulina e grelina, além do metabolismo energético hepático. Baseado em nossos resultados observamos que o consumo de dieta ocidental rica em gordura saturada e carboidrato simples durante 16 semanas causa hiperfagia, levando ao quadro de obesidade na idade adulta e prejuízo nas vias de sinalização dos hormônios insulina e grelina, que são importantes moduladores do metabolismo energético hepático, favorecendo o desenvolvimento de esteatose hepática não alcoólica.

Perfil de vitamina D e sua associação com adiposidade corporal e resistência à insulina em pacientes com doença renal crônica na fase não dialítica

O termo vitamina D compreende um grupo de hormônios esteróides com ações biológicas semelhantes. O método mais acurado para determinar o estado de vitamina D é através dos níveis plasmáticos de 25 hidroxivitamina D [25(OH)D]. A deficiência de 25(OH)D é considerada um problema de saúde pública, tendo como principal causa à baixa exposição solar, idade avançada e doenças crônicas. A deficiência de 25(OH)D é frequente em pacientes com doença renal crônica (DRC) na fase não dialítica. Estudos têm evidenciado que os níveis séricos de 25(OH)D apresentam associação inversa com adiposidade corporal e resistência à insulina (RI) na população em geral e na DRC. O excesso de gordura corporal e o risco de Doença Cardiovascular (DVC) vêm sendo estudados em pacientes com DRC e dentre as complicações metabólicas associadas à adiposidade corporal elevada observa-se valores aumentados de HOMA-IR (Homeostasis Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance) um marcador para RI. Estudos avaliando o perfil da 25(OH)D na DRC na fase não dialítica, especialmente relacionados com a adiposidade corporal e RI são escassos. O presente estudo tem como objetivo avaliar a relação entre os níveis séricos de 25(OH)D, RI, e adiposidade corporal em pacientes com DRC na fase não dialítica. Trata-se de um estudo transversal observacional, incluindo pacientes adultos, clinicamente estáveis e com filtração glomerular estimada (FGe) ≤ 60 ml/min., em acompanhamento regular no Núcleo Interdisciplinar de Tratamento da DRC. Os participantes foram submetidos à avaliação do estado nutricional por antropometria (peso, altura, índice de massa corporal (IMC), circunferências e dobras cutâneas) e absorciometria de duplo feixe de raios X (DXA); foram avaliados no sangue: creatinina, uréia, glicose, albumina, colesterol total e frações e triglicérides, além de leptina, insulina e 25(OH)D. Níveis séricos < 20ng/dL de 25(OH)D foram considerados como deficiência. As análises estatísticas foram realizadas utilizando-se o software STATA versão 10.0, StataCorp, College Satation, TX, USA. Foram avaliados 244 pacientes (homens n=135; 55,3%) com média de idade de 66,3 13,4 anos e de FGe= 29,4 12,7 ml/min. O IMC médio foi de 26,1 kg/m (23,0-30,1) com elevada prevalência de sobrepeso/obesidade (58%). A adiposidade corporal total foi elevada em homens (gordura total-DXA= 30,2 7,6%) e mulheres (gordura total-DXA= 39,9 6,6%). O valor mediano de 25(OH) D foi de 28,55 ng/dL (35,30-50,70) e de HOMA-IR foi 1,6 (1,0-2,7). Os pacientes com deficiência de 25(OH)D (n= 51; 20,5%) apresentaram maior adiposidade corporal total (DXA% e BAI %) e central (DXA%) e valores mais elevados de leptina. A 25(OH)D apresentou correlação significante com adiposidade corporal total e central e com a leptina, mas não se associou com valores de HOMA-IR. Estes resultados permitem concluir que nos pacientes DRC fase não dialítica a deficiência de 25(OH)D e a elevada adiposidade corporal são frequentes. Estas duas condições estão fortemente associadas independente da RI; a alta adiposidade corporal total e central estão positivamente relacionadas com RI; 25(OH)H e RI não estão associados nessa população com sobrepeso/obesidade.

Mães obesas, filhotes obesos: estudo experimental

O aumento da obesidade materna pode refletir em efeitos deletérios na prole adulta, manifestos diferentemente de acordo com o gênero do indivíduo. Este trabalho teve como objetivo verificar a hipótese de que a obesidade materna provoca alterações metabólicas, na estrutura do tecido adiposo e hepático e mudanças de perfil inflamatório nas proles adultas de machos e fêmeas. Fêmeas C57BL/ 6 receberam dieta padrão (SC, 17% da energia proveniente do lipídeo) ou dieta hiperlipídica (HF; 49% da energia proveniente do lipídeo) durante oito semanas pré-gestacionais até a lactação. Após o desmame, os filhotes foram divididos nos grupos: SCM (machos), SCF (fêmeas), HFM (machos) e HFF (fêmeas). As características metabólicas foram avaliadas pela massa corporal (MC), glicemia de jejum, área sob a curva no teste oral de tolerância a glicose; concentrações de triglicerídes (TG) hepáticos e estimativa da esteatose hepática; análise plasmática de insulina, colesterol total (CT), triglicerídes (TG) e adipocinas; distribuição e análise morfológica do tecido adiposo e estado pró-inflamatório dos filhotes. Diferenças entre os grupos foram analisadas pelo Teste T não pareado (dados entre progenitoras e pares de grupos nas proles); one-way ANOVA com pós-teste de Tukey (para proles) e two-way ANOVA (efeito da dieta materna e gênero). O nível de significância adotado foi de P≤0,05. Progenitoras HF tiveram maior MC (+20%), glicemia elevada (+22%) e intolerância à glicose em comparação ao grupo SC. A partir da quarta semana, a MC mostrou-se maior nas proles HF, em ambos os gêneros, quando comparados às proles SC. Na 12 semana, a MC foi 20% maior no grupo HF macho e 30% maior no grupo HF fêmea do que seus controles (p<0,0001, ambos os gêneros). Intolerância à glicose foi observada em machos e fêmeas HF em relação aos seus contrapares SC (+20%, p<0,05). Proles HF demonstraram hepatomegalia com maior acúmulo de TG hepático, resultando em maior percentual de esteatose em machos (27%) e fêmeas HF (25%). Proles HF apresentaram incremento na adiposidade (+20%) e nos níveis de CT e TG do que seus congêneres SC. Níveis plasmáticos de leptina e insulina foram maiores, enquanto houve diminuição da adiponectina no grupo HF macho em relação ao grupo SC macho. Hipertrofia de adipócitos foi observada nas proles HF. TNF-alfa, IL-6 e leptina foram mais expressos em proles HF, porém diminuição na expressão de adiponectina foi evidenciada nas proles geradas por mães obesas. A luz do exposto, a dieta HF administrada em mães antes e durante períodos de gestação e lactação leva à obesidade materna que tem consequências na prole, tais como remodelamento do tecido adiposo, juntamente com alterações bioquímicas e metabólicas dos adipócitos, intensificando o estado pró-inflamatório da prole, em ambos os gêneros, na idade adulta.

Efeito da suplementação dietética com cálcio sobre a plasticidade ontogenética no modelo de superalimentação pós-natal

A obesidade está relacionada com o desenvolvimento da diabetes, estresse oxidativo, esteatose hepática, alteração da sensibilidade hormonal e redução da capacidade termogênica pelo tecido adiposo marrom (TAM). Na obesidade, alterações do sistema dopaminérgico mesocorticolímbico podem levar ao vício por alimentos palatáveis. Todas estas características contribuem para o baixo gasto energético e o alto consumo alimentar. Para estudar os efeitos em longo prazo da obesidade infantil, utilizamos o modelo de redução do tamanho da ninhada. Para induzir a superalimentação neonatal, o tamanho da ninhada foi reduzido para 3 filhotes machos de PN3 21 (grupo SL). O grupo controle permaneceu com 10 filhotes (grupo NL). Em PN120, o grupo SL foi dividido em: SL que recebeu ração controle e SL-Ca que recebeu dieta controle suplementada com 10g/kg de CaCO3. Os sacrifícios ocorreram em PN120 e PN180. Durante todo o período experimental, avaliamos o consumo alimentar e peso corporal. Em PN175, avaliamos a preferência alimentar dos animais por uma dieta rica em açúcar ou em lipídio. Avaliamos os hormônios por ELISA, RIA e quimioluminescência; o conteúdo proteico por Western blotting no fígado, tecido adiposo branco (TAB) e marrom (TAM), adrenal e regiões cerebrais; as atividades enzimáticas no soro e no fígado por cinética enzimática. Em PN21, PN120 e PN180, avaliamos in vivo a atividade simpática do TAM. Ao desmame, os ratos SL apresentaram maior estado pró-oxidativo no fígado e plasma e menor sensibilidade às catecolaminas no TAB. Na idade adulta, a suplementação é capaz de melhorar o estado pró-oxidativo no fígado e plasma, a sensibilidade à insulina e a microesteatose no fígado. Tanto a alteração de metabolismo/ação da vitamina D e do glicocorticóide no tecido adiposo como a menor capacidade termogênica do TAM contribuem para a maior adiposidade dos animais do grupo SL. A suplementação com cálcio corrigiu parte dessas alterações. A superalimentação pós-natal levou a redução da via dopaminérgica e a maior preferencia por gordura, enquanto a suplementação com cálcio normalizou esta via apenas a nível hipotalâmico e corrigiu a preferência alimentar. Nossos dados destacam o impacto benéfico da suplementação dietética com cálcio, que pode ter um papel nutricional promissor para auxiliar a perda de peso e minimizar os distúrbios relacionados a obesidade e a síndrome metabólica dos animais obesos que foram superalimentados na lactação.

The impact of whey protein isolate on energy balance regulation

Using C57BL/6J mice fed whey protein isolate (WPI) enriched high fat (HFD) or low-fat diets (LFD), this study tested the hypothesis that WPI directly impacts on adiposity by influencing lipid metabolism. WPI suppressed HFD-induced body fat and increased lean mass at 8 weeks of dietary challenge despite elevated plasma triacylglycerol (TAG) levels, suggesting reduced TAG storage. WPI reduced HFD-associated hypothalamic leptin and insulin receptor (IR) mRNA expression, and prevented HFD-associated reductions in adipose tissue IR and glucose transporter 4 expression. These effects were largely absent at 21 weeks of HFD feeding, however WPI increased lean mass and cause a trend towards decreased fat mass, with notable increased Lactobacillus and decreased Clostridium gut bacterial species. Increasing the protein to carbohydrate ratio enhanced the above effects, and shifted the gut microbiota composition away from the HFD group. Seven weeks of WPI intake with a LFD decreased insulin signalling gene expression in the adipose tissue in association with an increased fat accumulation. WPI reduced intestinal weight and length, suggesting a potential functional relationship between WPI, gastro-intestinal morphology and insulin related signalling in the adipose. Extending the study to 15 weeks, did not affect adipose fat weight, but decreased energy intake, weight gain and intestinal length. The functionality of protein sensing lysophosphatidic acid receptor 5 (LPA5) in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes was assessed. Over-expression of the receptor in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes provided a growth advantage to the cells and suppressed cellular differentiation into mature fat cells. In conclusion, the data demonstrates WPI impacts on adiposity by influencing lipid metabolism in a temporal manner, resulting possibly due to changes in lean mass, hypothalamic and adipose gene expression, gut microbiota and gastrointestinal morphology. The data also showed LPA5 is a novel candidate in regulating of preadipocyte growth and differentiation, and may mediate dietary protein effects on adipose tissue.

Nutrition, growth and body composition in infancy

This thesis is presented in two parts. Data for this research is from the Cork BASELINE (Babies after SCOPE, Evaluating Longitudinal Impact using Neurological and Nutritional Endpoints) Birth Cohort Study (n = 2137). In this prospective birth cohort study, pediatric follow-up with in-person appointments were repeated from the time of birth through to 2, 6 and 12 months, and at 2 years. Body composition was measured by air displacement plethysmography at birth and at 2 months using the PEA POD Infant Body Composition Tracking System. This thesis provides the first extensive report on the study’s 2 year assessment. In part one, the aims were to investigate potential early-life risk factors for childhood overweight and obesity, including rapid growth and body composition in infancy and umbilical cord concentrations of leptin and high molecular weight (HMW) adiponectin. This research is the first to describe rapid growth in early infancy in terms of changes in direct measures of body composition. These are also the first data to examine associations between umbilical cord leptin and HMW adiponectin concentrations and changes in fat and lean mass in early infancy. These data provide additional insight into characterising the growth trajectory in infancy and into the role of perinatal factors in determining infant growth and subsequent overweight/obesity risk. In part two of this thesis, the aims were to quantify vitamin D intake and status at 2 years and to investigate whether 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentrations in early pregnancy and in umbilical cord blood are associated with infant growth and body composition. There was a low prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among Irish 2 year olds (n = 742) despite a high prevalence of inadequate intakes and high latitude (51°N). Maternal 25(OH)D concentrations at 15 weeks gestation and cord 25(OH)D concentrations at delivery were not associated with infant growth or adiposity.

A novel inflammatory biomarker, GlycA, associates with disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis and cardio-metabolic risk in BMI-matched controls

BACKGROUND: RA and CVD both have inflammation as part of the underlying biology. Our objective was to explore the relationships of GlycA, a measure of glycosylated acute phase proteins, with inflammation and cardiometabolic risk in RA, and explore whether these relationships were similar to those for persons without RA. METHODS: Plasma GlycA was determined for 50 individuals with mild-moderate RA disease activity and 39 controls matched for age, gender, and body mass index (BMI). Regression analyses were performed to assess relationships between GlycA and important markers of traditional inflammation and cardio-metabolic health: inflammatory cytokines, disease activity, measures of adiposity and insulin resistance. RESULTS: On average, RA activity was low (DAS-28 = 3.0 ± 1.4). Traditional inflammatory markers, ESR, hsCRP, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18 and TNF-α were greater in RA versus controls (P < 0.05 for all). GlycA concentrations were significantly elevated in RA versus controls (P = 0.036). In RA, greater GlycA associated with disease activity (DAS-28; RDAS-28 = 0.5) and inflammation (RESR = 0.7, RhsCRP = 0.7, RIL-6 = 0.3: P < 0.05 for all); in BMI-matched controls, these inflammatory associations were absent or weaker (hsCRP), but GlycA was related to IL-18 (RhsCRP = 0.3, RIL-18 = 0.4: P < 0.05). In RA, greater GlycA associated with more total abdominal adiposity and less muscle density (Rabdominal-adiposity = 0.3, Rmuscle-density = -0.3, P < 0.05 for both). In BMI-matched controls, GlycA associated with more cardio-metabolic markers: BMI, waist circumference, adiposity measures and insulin resistance (R = 0.3-0.6, P < 0.05 for all). CONCLUSIONS: GlycA provides an integrated measure of inflammation with contributions from traditional inflammatory markers and cardio-metabolic sources, dominated by inflammatory markers in persons with RA and cardio-metabolic factors in those without.

Differences in Abdominal and Liver Fat Accumulation Between Obesity-Matched Adults With and Without Type 2 Diabetes

Despite attempts to identify the mechanisms by which obesity leads to the development of Type 2 Diabetes (T2D), it remains unclear why some but not all adults with obesity develop T2D. Given the established associations between visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and liver fat with insulin resistance, we hypothesized that compared to age and obesity matched adults who were non-diabetic (NT2D), adults with T2D would have greater amounts of VAT and liver fat. The International Study of Prediction of Intra-Abdominal Adiposity and Its Relationship with Cardiometabolic Risk/Intra-Abdominal Adiposity (INSPIRE ME IAA) aims to study the associations between VAT and liver fat and risk of developing T2D and cardiovascular disease. Four thousand, five hundred and four participants were initially recruited; from this, 2383 White and Asian adults were selected for this ancillary analysis. The NT2D and T2D groups were matched for age, body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC). The T2D and NT2D groups were also compared to participants with either impaired fasting glucose (IFG) or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT; IFG/IGT)). Abdominal adipose tissue was measured by computed tomography; liver fat was estimated using computed tomography-derived mean attenuation. Secondary analysis determined whether differences existed between NT2D and T2D groups in VAT and liver fat accumulation within selected BMI categories for Whites and Asians. We report across sex and race, T2D and IFG/IGT groups had elevated VAT and liver fat compared to the NT2D group (p<0.05). VAT was not different between IFG/IGT and T2D groups (p>0.05), however liver fat was greater in the T2D group compared to the IFG/IGT group in both Whites and Asians (p<0.05). Within each BMI category, the T2D group had elevated VAT and liver fat compared to the age and anthropometrically matched NT2D group in both Whites and Asians (p<0.05). With few exceptions, abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue was not different in the T2D or IFG/IGT groups compared to the NT2D group independent of sex and race. Compared to age and obesity-matched adults who are NT2D, we observe that White and Asian adults with T2D, and those with IFG/IGT, present with greater levels of both VAT and liver fat.

Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcome study:Neonatal glycemia

OBJECTIVE: The goal was to describe the temporal pattern of neonatal plasma glucose levels and associations with maternal glucose levels, cord serum C-peptide levels, and neonatal size and adiposity. METHODS: A total of 17 094 mothers and infants were included in the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome Study (15 centers in 9 countries). Mothers underwent a 75-g, 2-hour, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at 24 to 32 weeks of gestation. Cord blood and neonatal blood samples were collected. Biochemical neonatal hypoglycemia was defined as glucose levels of 90th percentile. CONCLUSIONS: Mean neonatal plasma glucose concentrations varied little in the first 5 hours after birth, which suggests normal postnatal adjustment. Biochemical and clinical hypoglycemia were weakly related to maternal OGTT glucose measurements but were strongly associated with elevated cord serum C-peptide levels. Larger and/or fatter infants were more likely to develop hypoglycemia and hyperinsulinemia. These relationships suggest physiologic relationships between maternal glycemia and fetal insulin production. Copyright © 2010 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.

Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcome (HAPO) study:Associations with neonatal anthropometrics

OBJECTIVE-To examine associations of neonatal adiposity with maternal glucose levels and cord serum C-peptide in a multicenter multinational study, the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study, thereby assessing the Pederson hypothesis linking maternal glycemia and fetal hyperinsulinemia to neonatal adiposity. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS-Eligible pregnant women underwent a standard 75-g oral glucose tolerance test between 24 and 32 weeks gestation (as close to 28 weeks as possible). Neonatal anthropometrics and cord serum C-peptide were measured. Associations of maternal glucose and cord serum C-peptide with neonatal adiposity (sum of skin folds >90th percentile or percent body fat >90th percentile) were assessed using multiple logistic regression analyses, with adjustment for potential confounders, including maternal age, parity, BMI, mean arterial pressure, height, gestational age at delivery, and the baby's sex. RESULTS-Among 23,316 HAPO Study participants with glucose levels blinded to caregivers, cord serum C-peptide results were available for 19,885 babies and skin fold measurements for 19,389. For measures of neonatal adiposity, there were strong statistically significant gradients across increasing levels of maternal glucose and cord serum C-peptide, which persisted after adjustment for potential confounders. In fully adjusted continuous variable models, odds ratios ranged from 1.35 to 1.44 for the two measures of adiposity for fasting, 1-h, and 2-h plasma glucose higher by 1 SD. CONCLUSIONS-These findings confirm the link between maternal glucose and neonatal adiposity and suggest that the relationship is mediated by fetal insulin production and that the Pedersen hypothesis describes a basic biological relationship influencing fetal growth. © 2009 by the American Diabetes Association.

New genetic loci link adipose and insulin biology to body fat distribution

Body fat distribution is a heritable trait and a well-established predictor of adverse metabolic outcomes, independent of overall adiposity. To increase our understanding of the genetic basis of body fat distribution and its molecular links to cardiometabolic traits, here we conduct genome-wide association meta-analyses of traits related to waist and hip circumferences in up to 224,459 individuals. We identify 49 loci (33 new) associated with waist-to-hip ratio adjusted for body mass index (BMI), and an additional 19 loci newly associated with related waist and hip circumference measures (P < 5 × 10(-8)). In total, 20 of the 49 waist-to-hip ratio adjusted for BMI loci show significant sexual dimorphism, 19 of which display a stronger effect in women. The identified loci were enriched for genes expressed in adipose tissue and for putative regulatory elements in adipocytes. Pathway analyses implicated adipogenesis, angiogenesis, transcriptional regulation and insulin resistance as processes affecting fat distribution, providing insight into potential pathophysiological mechanisms.

Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology

Obesity is heritable and predisposes to many diseases. To understand the genetic basis of obesity better, here we conduct a genome-wide association study and Metabochip meta-analysis of body mass index (BMI), a measure commonly used to define obesity and assess adiposity, in up to 339,224 individuals. This analysis identifies 97 BMI-associated loci (P < 5 × 10(-8)), 56 of which are novel. Five loci demonstrate clear evidence of several independent association signals, and many loci have significant effects on other metabolic phenotypes. The 97 loci account for ∼2.7% of BMI variation, and genome-wide estimates suggest that common variation accounts for >20% of BMI variation. Pathway analyses provide strong support for a role of the central nervous system in obesity susceptibility and implicate new genes and pathways, including those related to synaptic function, glutamate signalling, insulin secretion/action, energy metabolism, lipid biology and adipogenesis.

Untreated Mild Hyperglycemia During Pregnancy and Anthropometric Measures of Obesity in Offspring at Age 5-7 Years

OBJECTIVE: Obesity in the offspring of women with hyperglycemia during pregnancy has been reported, but the results are conflicting. This study examined the association of hyperglycemia during pregnancy and anthropometry in 5- to 7-year-old offspring whose mothers participated in the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (HAPO) Study at the Belfast Centre.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Women in the HAPO study underwent a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at approximately 28 weeks of gestation. Mothers and caregivers remained blinded to the results unless the fasting plasma glucose (FPG) concentration was >5.8 mmol/L or the 2-h plasma glucose (2hPG) concentration was >11.1 mmol/L. Offspring weight, height, and skin-fold thicknesses (triceps, subscapular, and suprailiac) were measured at age 5-7 years. Overweight, obesity, and extreme obesity were defined as a BMI z score ≥85th, ≥95th, and ≥99th percentile, respectively, based on the 1990 British Growth Standard.

RESULTS: Belfast HAPO offspring (n = 1,320, 82%) aged 5-7 years attended for follow-up. Using multiple regression, maternal FPG, 1h PG, and 2hPG did not show any relation to offspring BMI z score or offspring skin-fold sum independent of maternal BMI at OGTT and offspring birth weight z score. This lack of association with maternal glycemia persisted with the offspring BMI z score expressed as ≥85th, ≥95th, or 99th percentile, and the sum of skin folds expressed as ≥90th percentile specific for sex. The initially significant relation between FPG and all offspring adiposity measures was explained by maternal BMI at the OGTT.

CONCLUSIONS: After adjustment for maternal BMI at the OGTT, higher maternal FPG concentration during pregnancy (short of diabetes) is no longer a risk factor for obesity, as reflected by BMI and the sum of skin folds in offspring aged 5-7 years.

Lower resting energy expenditure and fat oxidation in Native American and Hispanic infants born to mothers with diabetes

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether exposure to diabetes in utero affects resting energy expenditure (REE) and fuel oxidation in infants.

STUDY DESIGN: At 35 ± 5 days after birth, body composition and REE were measured in full-term offspring of Native American and Hispanic women with either well-controlled diabetes (13 girls, 11 boys) or normal healthy pregnancies (18 girls, 17 boys).

RESULTS: Control of dysglycemia during gestation in the women with diabetes mellitus met current clinical standards, shown by average glycated hemoglobin (5.9 ± 0.2%; 40.6 ± 2.3 mmol/mol). Infant body mass (offspring of women with diabetes: 4.78 ± 0.13, control offspring: 4.56 ± 0.08 kg) and body fatness (offspring of women with diabetes: 25.2 ± 0.6, control offspring: 24.2 ± 0.5 %) did not differ between groups. REE, adjusted for lean body mass, was 14% lower in offspring of women with diabetes (41.7 ± 2.3 kJ/h) than control offspring (48.6 ± 2.0, P = .025). Fat oxidation was 26% lower in offspring of women with diabetes (0.54 ± 0.05 g/h) than control offspring (0.76 ± 0.04, P < .01) but carbohydrate oxidation did not differ. Thus, fat oxidation accounted for a lower fraction of REE in the offspring of women with diabetes (49 ± 4%) than control offspring (60 ± 3%, P = .022). Mothers with diabetes were older and had higher prepregnancy body mass index than control mothers.

CONCLUSIONS: Well-controlled maternal diabetes did not significantly affect body mass or composition of offspring at 1-month old. However, infants with mothers with diabetes had reduced REE and fat oxidation, which could contribute to adiposity and future disease risk. Further studies are needed to assess the impact differences in age and higher prepregnancy body mass index.

Cord blood adipokines, neonatal anthropometrics and postnatal growth in offspring of Hispanic and Native American women with diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND: Offspring of women with diabetes mellitus (DM) during pregnancy have a risk of developing metabolic disease in adulthood greater than that conferred by genetics alone. The mechanisms responsible are unknown, but likely involve fetal exposure to the in utero milieu, including glucose and circulating adipokines. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of maternal DM on fetal adipokines and anthropometry in infants of Hispanic and Native American women.

METHODS: We conducted a prospective study of offspring of mothers with normoglycemia (Con-O; n = 79) or type 2 or gestational DM (DM-O; n = 45) pregnancies. Infant anthropometrics were measured at birth and 1-month of age. Cord leptin, high-molecular-weight adiponectin (HMWA), pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) and C-peptide were measured by ELISA. Differences between groups were assessed using the Generalized Linear Model framework. Correlations were calculated as standardized regression coefficients and adjusted for significant covariates.

RESULTS: DM-O were heavier at birth than Con-O (3.7 ± 0.6 vs. 3.4 ± 0.4 kg, p = 0.024), but sum of skinfolds (SSF) were not different. At 1-month, there was no difference in weight, SSF or % body fat or postnatal growth between groups. Leptin was higher in DM-O (20.1 ± 14.9 vs. 9.5 ± 9.9 ng/ml in Con-O, p < 0.0001). Leptin was positively associated with birth weight (p = 0.0007) and SSF (p = 0.002) in Con-O and with maternal hemoglobin A1c in both groups (Con-O, p = 0.023; DM-O, p = 0.006). PEDF was positively associated with birth weight in all infants (p = 0.004). Leptin was positively associated with PEDF in both groups, with a stronger correlation in DM-O (p = 0.009). At 1-month, HMWA was positively associated with body weight (p = 0.004), SSF (p = 0.025) and % body fat (p = 0.004) across the cohort.

CONCLUSIONS: Maternal DM results in fetal hyperleptinemia independent of adiposity. HMWA appears to influence postnatal growth. Thus, in utero exposure to DM imparts hormonal differences on infants even without aberrant growth.