Early repolarization, left ventricular diastolic function, and left atrial size in professional soccer players

Recent data have suggested a relation among long-term endurance sport practice, left atrial remodeling, and atrial fibrillation. We investigated the influence of an increased vagal tone, represented by the early repolarization (ER) pattern, on diastolic function and left atrial size in professional soccer players. Fifty-four consecutive athletes underwent electrocardiography, echocardiography, and exercise testing as part of their preparticipation screening. Athletes were divided into 2 groups according to presence or absence of an ER pattern, defined as a ST-segment elevation at the J-point (STE) > or =0.1 mm in 2 leads. For linear comparisons average STE was calculated. Mean age was 24 +/- 4 years. Twenty-five athletes (46%) showed an ER pattern. Athletes with an ER pattern had a significant lower heart rate (54 +/- 9 vs 62 +/- 11 beats/min, p = 0.024), an increased E/e' ratio (6.1 +/- 1.2 vs 5.1 +/- 1.0, p = 0.002), and larger volumes of the left atrium (25.6 +/- 7.3 vs 21.8 +/- 5.0 ml/m(2), p = 0.031) compared to athletes without an ER pattern. There were no significant differences concerning maximum workload, left ventricular dimensions, and systolic function. Univariate regression analysis revealed significant correlations among age, STE, and left atrial volume. In a stepwise multivariate regression analysis age, STE and e' contributed independently to left atrial size (r = 0.659, p <0.001). In conclusion, athletes with an ER pattern had an increased E/e' ratio, reflecting a higher left atrial filling pressure, contributing to left atrial remodeling over time.

"Coaching soccer is a man’s job!" – The influence of gender stereotypes on structures for recruiting female coaches in soccer clubs

Statistics published by the German Football Association indicate that women are significantly under-represented amongst soccer coaches, especially in the amateur leagues. In this paper we analyse how gender stereotypes influence the structural conditions surrounding the recruitment of coaches to soccer clubs that contribute to the exclusion of women from coaching positions. A qualitative study of five selected soccer clubs which are members of a German regional soccer association reveals that informal and personal decision-making practices still play a fundamental role in the recruitment of coaches. These practices undermine formal guidelines and give disproportionate weight to stereotyped preferences in the recruitment of soccer coaches. In this context, decision-makers' (functionaries') professed support of women largely serves a symbolic purpose and creates an illusion of equality concerning decisions that have already been taken at an informal level.

Autonomic stress responses elicited by watching a live broadcast soccer game: a pilot study

Aim: Increased rates of hospitalization due to cardiovascular events have been reported during phases of World Soccer Championships (WSC). The purpose of this pilot study was to explore acute psychological and physiological effects of watching a live broadcast soccer game during the WSC 2006. Methods: Seven male supporters (age: M=24; SD=2.7) of the Swiss National Soccer Team watched a game of their team in a controlled laboratory setting. Heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase (sAA), and testosterone concentrations, as well as several mood ratings were captured repeatedly before, during, and after the game. Results: Subjects reported feeling stressed, and HR and sAA activity showed an increase during the game. In contrast, HRV, cortisol and testosterone were unaffected. Conclusion: Watching a sports competition seems to specifically affect the sympathetic nervous system, which can be measured by sensitive electrocardiographic and salivary markers.

Death by patent foramen ovale in a soccer player

A 34-year-old male patient was referred for primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction with cardiogenic shock and was found to have embolic left coronary artery occlusion and subsegmental pulmonary artery emboli as a consequence of venous thrombosis to trauma to the thigh in the presence of a patent foramen ovale.

The implicit achievement motive and general life stress affect time spent on competitive matches in racquet sports

The match time spent on court in racquet sports can be perceived as dependent on the effort an athlete is willing to exert in a competition. Achievement motivation is defined as the effort a person spends on a difficult task with the completion of which she wants to meet a personal standard of excellence, wants to improve herself, or outperform others (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953). Fifty-two professionals of three racquet sports (tennis, table tennis, and badminton) filled in a questionnaire on their explicit achievement motive, a scale on general life stress, and a measure of the implicit achievement motive. Results indicate that the implicit but not the explicit achievement motive was able to predict the athletes' time spent on court (effort). Additionally the general life stress scale was negatively related to time spent on court. Findings are in line with theoretical assumptions that actual behavior is linked to the implicit achievement motive and that higher levels of general life stress lead to impaired performance in sports.

Coaches` subjective talent criteria in top-level soccer

Introduction: In professional soccer, talent selection relies on the subjective judgment of scouts and coaches. To date, little is known about coaches´ “eye for talent” (Christensen, 2009, p. 379) and the nature of the subjective criteria they use to identify those players with the greatest potential to achieve peak performance in adulthood (Williams & Reilly, 2000). Drawing on a constructivist approach (Kelly, 1991), this study explores coaches´ subjective talent criteria. It is assumed that coaches are able to verbalise and specify their talent criteria, and that these are related to their talent selection decisions based on instinct. Methods: Participants and generation of data. Five national youth soccer coaches (Mage = 55.6; SD = 5.03) were investigated at three appointments: (1) talent selection decision based on instinct, (2) semi-structured inductive interview to elicit each coaches´ talent criteria in detail, (3) communicative validation and evaluation of the players by each coach using the repertory grid technique (Fromm, 2004). Data Analysis: Interviews were transcribed and summarized with regard to each specified talent criterion. Each talent criterion was categorized using a bottom-up-approach (meaning categorization, Kvale, 1996). The repertory grid data was analysed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Results and Discussion: For each coach, six to nine talent criteria were elicited and specified. The subjective talent criteria include aspects of personality, cognitive perceptual skills, motor abilities, development, technique, social environment and physical constitution, which shows that the coaches use a multi-dimensional concept of talent. However, more than half of all criteria describe personality characteristics, in particular achievement motivation, volition and self-confidence. In contrast to Morris (2000), this result shows that coaches have a differentiated view of the personality characteristics required to achieve peak performance. As an indication of criterion validity, moderate to high correlations (.57 ≤ r ≤ .81) are found between the evaluations of the players according to the coaches´ talent criteria and their talent selection decision. The study shows that coaches are able to specify their subject talent criteria and that those criteria are strongly related to their instinctive selection decisions. References: Christensen, M. K. (2009). "An Eye for Talent": Talent Identification and the "Practical Sense" of Top-Level Soccer Coaches. Sociology of Sport Journal, 26, 365–382. Fromm, M. (2004). Introduction to the Repertory Grid Interview. Münster: Waxmann. Kelly, G. A. (1991). The Psychology of Personal Constructs: Volume One: Theory and personality. London: Routledge. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Morris, T. (2000). Psychological characteristics and talent identification in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 715–726. Williams, A. M., & Reilly, T. (2000). Talent identification and development in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 657–667.

Left atrial remodeling, early repolarization pattern, and inflammatory cytokines in professional soccer players

OBJECTIVES: Although regular physical exercise clearly reduces cardiovascular morbidity risk, long-term endurance sports practice has been recognized as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation (AF). However, the mechanisms how endurance sports can lead to AF are not yet clear. The aim of our present study was to investigate the influence of long-term endurance training on vagal tone, atrial size, and inflammatory profile in professional elite soccer players. METHODS: A total of 25 professional major league soccer players (mean age 24+/-4 years) and 20 sedentary controls (mean age 26+/-3 years) were included in the study and consecutively examined. All subjects underwent a sports cardiology check-up with physical examination, electrocardiography, echocardiography, exercise testing on a bicycle ergometer, and laboratory analysis [standard laboratory and cytokine profile: interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, IL-8, IL-10]. RESULTS: Athletes were divided into two groups according to presence or absence of an early repolarization (ER) pattern, defined as a ST-segment elevation at the J-point (STE) >/=0.1mm in 2 leads. Athletes with an ER pattern showed significantly lower heart rate and an increased E/e' ratio compared to athletes without an ER pattern. STE significantly correlated with E/e' ratio as well as with left atrial (LA) volume. The pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, TNF-alpha as well as the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 were significantly elevated in all soccer players. However, athletes with an ER pattern had significantly higher IL-6 plasma levels than athletes without ER pattern. Furthermore, athletes with "high" level IL-6 had significantly larger LA volumes than players with "low" level IL-6. CONCLUSIONS: Athletes with an ER pattern had significantly higher E/e' ratios, reflecting higher atrial filling pressures, higher LA volume, and higher IL-6 plasma levels. All these factors may contribute to atrial remodeling over time and thus increase the risk of AF in long-term endurance sports.

Acute effects of endurance exercise on jumping and kicking performance in top-class young soccer players

The aim of this study was to examine the acute effects of endurance exercise on jumping and kicking performance in young soccer players. Twenty-one top-class young soccer players (16.1±0.2 years) performed a countermovement jump test and a maximal instep soccer kick test before and after running for 20 min on a treadmill at 80% of their individual maximum heart rate. Two force platforms were used to obtain the following parameters during the countermovement jump: jump height, maximum power, maximum power relative to body mass, maximum vertical ground reaction force, maximum vertical ground reaction force relative to body mass, and maximum vertical ground reaction force applied to each leg. Maximum vertical ground reaction force and maximum vertical ground reaction force relative to body mass applied to the support leg during the kicks were also calculated with a force platform. The kicking motion was recorded using a three-dimensional motion-capture system. Maximum velocity of the ball, maximum linear velocity of the toe, ankle, knee and hip, and linear velocity of the toe at ball contact during the kicks were calculated. Non-significant differences were found in the parameters measured during the countermovement jump and the maximal instep soccer kick test before and after running, suggesting that the jumping and kicking performances of top-class young soccer players were not significantly affected after 20 min treadmill running at 80% of their individual maximum heart rate.

Effect of positioning on the accuracy of decision making of association football top-class referees and assistant referees during competitive matches

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of positioning on the correctness of decision making of top-class referees and assistant referees during international games. Match analyses were carried out during the Fe´de´ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) Confederations Cup 2009 and 380 foul play incidents and 165 offside situations were examined. The error percentage for the referees when indicating the incidents averaged 14%. The lowest error percentage occurred in the central area of the field, where the collaboration of the assistant referee is limited, and was achieved when indicating the incidents from a distance of 11–15 m, whereas this percentage peaked (23%) in the last 15-min match period. The error rate for the assistant referees was 13%. Distance of the assistant referee to the offside line did not have an impact on the quality of the offside decision. The risk of making incorrect decisions was reduced when the assistant referees viewed the offside situations from an angle between 46 and 608. Incorrect offside decisions occurred twice as often in the second as in the first half of the games. Perceptual-cognitive training sessions specific to the requirements of the game should be implemented in the weekly schedule of football officials to reduce the overall error rate.

Kinematic and heart rate demands in 4x4 vs 7x7 small sided games in professional soccer players

Comparación de las variables cinemáticas y de frecuencia cardiaca en dos posesiones en fútbol

The spanish professional soccer foundations. (Las fundaciones clubes de futbol profesionales en España)

Sports foundations aiming at promoting sports activities partly outline the nonprofit area with specific concern. This study attempts to know the functions, general interests of professional soccer foundations in Spain, to describe their main characteristics and to ascertain if there are significant differences among them, according to their descriptive features. A document survey and analysis was carried out, with an assistance of own establishment of documental database. The findings not only indicate a significant difference between the classification of Spanish soccer foundations and their antiquities, but also manifest the tendency of the existence of physical person in members of founders with regard to its antiquity. The results of the present work implied that there were great dissimilarities of the elaboration of regulations depending on different regions in Spain.