Development and formative evaluation of a motorcycle rider training intervention to address risk taking

The need to address on-road motorcycle safety in Australia is important due to the disproportionately high percentage of riders and pillions killed and injured each year. One approach to preventing motorcycle-related injury is through training and education. However, motorcycle rider training lacks empirical support as an effective road safety countermeasure to reduce crash involvement. Previous reviews have highlighted that risk-taking is a contributing factor in many motorcycle crashes, rather than merely a lack of vehicle-control skills (Haworth & Mulvihill, 2005; Jonah, Dawson & Bragg, 1982; Watson et al, 1996). Hence, though the basic vehicle-handling skills and knowledge of road rules that are taught in most traditional motorcycle licence training programs may be seen as an essential condition of safe riding, they do not appear to be sufficient in terms of crash reduction. With this in mind there is considerable scope for the improvement of program focus and content for rider training and education. This program of research examined an existing traditional pre-licence motorcycle rider training program and formatively evaluated the addition of a new classroom-based module to address risky riding; the Three Steps to Safer Riding program. The pilot program was delivered in the real world context of the Q-Ride motorcycle licensing system in the state of Queensland, Australia. Three studies were conducted as part of the program of research: Study 1, a qualitative investigation of delivery practices and student learning needs in an existing rider training course; Study 2, an investigation of the extent to which an existing motorcycle rider training course addressed risky riding attitudes and motives; and Study 3, a formative evaluation of the new program. A literature review as well as the investigation of learning needs for motorcyclists in Study 1 aimed to inform the initial planning and development of the Three Steps to Safer Riding program. Findings from Study 1 suggested that the training delivery protocols used by the industry partner training organisation were consistent with a learner-centred approach and largely met the learning needs of trainee riders. However, it also found that information from the course needs to be reinforced by on-road experiences for some riders once licensed and that personal meaning for training information was not fully gained until some riding experience had been obtained. While this research informed the planning and development of the new program, a project team of academics and industry experts were responsible for the formulation of the final program. Study 2 and Study 3 were conducted for the purpose of formative evaluation and program refinement. Study 2 served primarily as a trial to test research protocols and data collection methods with the industry partner organisation and, importantly, also served to gather comparison data for the pilot program which was implemented with the same rider training organisation. Findings from Study 2 suggested that the existing training program of the partner organisation generally had a positive (albeit small) effect on safety in terms of influencing attitudes to risk taking, the propensity for thrill seeking, and intentions to engage in future risky riding. However, maintenance of these effects over time and the effects on riding behaviour remain unclear due to a low response rate upon follow-up 24 months after licensing. Study 3 was a formative evaluation of the new pilot program to establish program effects and possible areas for improvement. Study 3a examined the short term effects of the intervention pilot on psychosocial factors underpinning risky riding compared to the effects of the standard traditional training program (examined in Study 2). It showed that the course which included the Three Steps to Safer Riding program elicited significantly greater positive attitude change towards road safety than the existing standard licensing course. This effect was found immediately following training, and mean scores for attitudes towards safety were also maintained at the 12 month follow-up. The pilot program also had an immediate effect on other key variables such as risky riding intentions and the propensity for thrill seeking, although not significantly greater than the traditional standard training. A low response rate at the 12 month follow-up unfortunately prevented any firm conclusions being drawn regarding the impact of the pilot program on self-reported risky riding once licensed. Study 3a further showed that the use of intermediate outcomes such as self-reported attitudes and intentions for evaluation purposes provides insights into the mechanisms underpinning risky riding that can be changed by education and training. A multifaceted process evaluation conducted in Study 3b confirmed that the intervention pilot was largely delivered as designed, with course participants also rating most aspects of training delivery highly. The complete program of research contributed to the overall body of knowledge relating to motorcycle rider training, with some potential implications for policy in the area of motorcycle rider licensing. A key finding of the research was that psychosocial influences on risky riding can be shaped by structured education that focuses on awareness raising at a personal level and provides strategies to manage future riding situations. However, the formative evaluation was mainly designed to identify areas of improvement for the Three Steps to Safer Riding program and found several areas of potential refinement to improve future efficacy of the program. This included aspects of program content, program delivery, resource development, and measurement tools. The planned future follow-up of program participants' official crash and traffic offence records over time may lend further support for the application of the program within licensing systems. The findings reported in this thesis offer an initial indication that the Three Steps to Safer Riding is a useful resource to accompany skills-based training programs.

On the periodicity of traffic oscillations and capacity drop : the role of driver characteristics

This paper shows that traffic hysteresis, a manifestation of driver characteristics, has a profound impact on the development of traffic oscillations and the bottleneck discharge rate. Findings suggest that aggressive driver behavior (with small response times and jammed spacing) leads to spontaneous formations of stop-and-go disturbances. Furthermore, the aggressive behavior, coupled with a late response to adopt less aggressive behavior, generates large hysteresis that leads to oscillations’ transformation from localized to substantial disturbances and growth. The larger the magnitude of hysteresis is, the larger the growth is. Our finding also suggests that the bottleneck discharge rate can diminish by 8-23% when driver adopts a less aggressive reaction to a disturbance (characterized by a larger response time). This finding is particularly notable since lane-changes have been believed to be the major cause of a reduction in bottleneck discharge rate.

What can we learn from the crashes of learner riders?

In some parts of Australia, people wanting to learn to ride a motorcycle are required to complete an off-road training course before they are allowed to practice on the road. In the state of Queensland, they are only required to pass a short multiple-choice road rules knowledge test. This paper describes an analysis of police-reported crashes involving learner riders in Queensland that was undertaken as part of research investigating whether pre-learner training is needed and, if so, the issues that should be addressed in training.. The crashes of learner riders and other riders were compared to identify whether there are particular situations or locations in which learner motorcyclists are over-involved in crashes, which could then be targeted in the pre-learner package. The analyses were undertaken separately for riders aged under 25 (330 crashes) versus those aged 25 and over (237 crashes) to provide some insight into whether age or riding inexperience are the more important factors, and thus to indicate whether there are merits in having different licensing or training approaches for younger and older learner riders. Given that the average age of learner riders was 33 years, under 25 was chosen to provide a sufficiently large sample of younger riders. Learner riders appeared to be involved in more severe crashes and to be more often at fault than fully-licensed riders but this may reflect problems in reporting, rather than real differences. Compared to open licence holders, both younger and older learner riders had relatively more crashes in low speed zones and relatively fewer in high speed zones. Riders aged under 25 had elevated percentages of night-time crashes and fewer single unit (potentially involving rider error only) crashes regardless of the type of licence held. The contributing factors that were more prevalent in crashes of learner riders than holders of open licences were: inexperience (37.2% versus 0.5%), inattention (21.5% versus 15.6%), alcohol or drugs (12.0% versus 5.1%) and drink riding (9.9% versus 3.1%). The pattern of contributing factors was generally similar for younger and older learner riders, although younger learners were (not surprisingly) more likely to have inexperience coded as a contributing factor (49.7% versus 19.8%). Some of the differences in crashes between learner riders and fully-licensed riders appear to reflect relatively more riding in urban areas by learners, rather than increased risks relating to inexperience. The analysis of contributing factors in learner rider crashes suggests that hazard perception and risk management (in terms of speed and alcohol and drugs) should be included in a pre-learner program. Currently, most learner riders in Queensland complete pre-licence training and become licensed within one month of obtaining their learner permit. If the introduction of pre-learner training required that the learner permit was held for a minimum duration, then the immediate effect might be more learners riding (and crashing). Thus, it is important to consider how training and licensing initiatives work together in order to improve the safety of new riders (and how this can be evaluated).

Safety at railway level crossings : driver acceptance of potential ITS interventions

There is a continuing need to improve safety at Railway Level Crossings (RLX) particularly those that do not have gates and lights regulating traffic flow. A number of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) interventions have been proposed to improve drivers’ awareness and reduce errors in detecting and responding appropriately at level crossings. However, as with other technologies, successful implementation and ultimately effectiveness rests with the acceptance of the technology by the end user. In the current research, four focus groups were held (n=38) with drivers in metropolitan and regional locations in Queensland to examine their perceptions of potential in-vehicle and road-based ITS interventions to improve safety at RLX. The findings imply that further development of the ITS interventions, in particular the design and related promotion of the final product, must consider ease of use, usefulness and relative cost.

Learner-focused evaluation cycles : facilitating learning using feedforward, concurrent and feedback evaluation

There is a growing trend to offer students learning opportunities that are flexible, innovative and engaging. As educators embrace student-centred agile teaching and learning methodologies, which require continuous reflection and adaptation, the need to evaluate students’ learning in a timely manner has become more pressing. Conventional evaluation surveys currently dominate the evaluation landscape internationally, despite recognition that they are insufficient to effectively evaluate curriculum and teaching quality. Surveys often: (1) fail to address the issues for which educators need feedback, (2) constrain student voice, (3) have low response rates and (4) occur too late to benefit current students. Consequently, this paper explores principles of effective feedback to propose a framework for learner-focused evaluation. We apply a three-stage control model, involving feedforward, concurrent and feedback evaluation, to investigate the intersection of assessment and evaluation in agile learning environments. We conclude that learner-focused evaluation cycles can be used to guide action so that evaluation is not undertaken simply for the benefit of future offerings, but rather to benefit current students by allowing ‘real-time’ learning activities to be adapted in the moment. As a result, students become co-producers of learning and evaluation becomes a meaningful, responsive dialogue between students and their instructors.

Countermeasures to driver sleepiness : is the message getting through?

The most effective countermeasures to driver sleepiness (caffeine and a nap, ideally in combination) are not the most popular choice for UK drivers. Groups susceptible to driver sleepiness (OSA patients and truck drivers) do not favour effective countermeasures to driver sleepiness. Prior experience of driver sleepiness does not promote an effective choice of countermeasure.

Exploring schema-driven differences in situation awareness between road users : an on-road study of driver, cyclist and motorcyclist situation awareness

Collisions between different road users make a substantial contribution to road trauma. Although evidence suggests that different road users interpret the same road situations differently, it is not clear how road users' situation awareness differs, nor is it clear which differences might lead to conflicts. This article presents the findings from an on-road study conducted to examine driver, motorcyclist and cyclist situation awareness in different road environments. The findings suggest that, in addition to minor differences in the structure of different road users' situation awareness (i.e. amount of information and how it is integrated), the actual content of situation awareness in terms of road user schemata, the resulting interaction with the world and the information underpinning situation awareness is markedly different. Further examination indicates that the differences are likely to be compatible along arterial roads, shopping strips and at roundabouts, but that they may create conflicts between different road users at intersections. Interventions designed to support compatible situation awareness and behaviour between different road users are discussed. Practitioner Summary: Incompatible situation awareness plays a key role in collisions between different road users (e.g. drivers and motorcyclists). This on-road study examined situation awareness in drivers, motorcyclists and cyclists, identifying the key differences and potential conflicts that arise. The findings are used to propose interventions designed to enhance the compatibility of situation awareness between road users.

Sensorimotor and postural control factors associated with driving safety in a community-dwelling older driver population

Background. To establish whether sensorimotor function and balance are associated with on-road driving performance in older adults. Methods. The performance of 270 community-living adults aged 70–88 years recruited via the electoral roll was measured on a battery of peripheral sensation, strength, flexibility, reaction time, and balance tests and on a standardized measure of on-road driving performance. Results. Forty-seven participants (17.4%) were classified as unsafe based on their driving assessment. Unsafe driving was associated with reduced peripheral sensation, lower limb weakness, reduced neck range of motion, slow reaction time, and poor balance in univariate analyses. Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified poor vibration sensitivity, reduced quadriceps strength, and increased sway on a foam surface with eyes closed as significant and independent risk factors for unsafe driving. These variables classified participants into safe and unsafe drivers with a sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 70%. Conclusions. A number of sensorimotor and balance measures were associated with driver safety and the multivariate model comprising measures of sensation, strength, and balance was highly predictive of unsafe driving in this sample. These findings highlight important determinants of driver safety and may assist in developing efficacious driver safety strategies for older drivers.

Mobility and out-of-home activities of older people living in suburban environments : ‘Because I'm a driver, I don't have a problem'

Governments are challenged by the need to ensure that ageing populations stay active and engaged as they age. Therefore, it is critical to investigate the role of mobility in older people's engagement in out-of-home activities, and to identify the experiences they have within their communities. This research investigates the use of transportation by older people and its implications for their out-of-home activities within suburban environments. The qualitative, mixed-method approach employs data collection methods which include a daily travel diary (including a questionnaire), Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking and semi-structured interviews with older people living in suburban environments in Brisbane, Australia. Results show that older people are mobile throughout the city, and their car provides them with that opportunity to access desired destinations. This ability to drive allows older people to live independently and to assist others who do not drive, particularly where transport alternatives are not as accessible. The ability to transport goods and other people is a significant advantage of the private car over other transport options. People with no access to private transportation who live in low-density environments are disadvantaged when it comes to participation within the community. Further research is needed to better understand the relationship between transportation and participation within the community environment, to assist policy makers and city and transportation planners to develop strategies for age-friendly environments within the community.

Older driver safety and mobility : where to from here?

The older adult population (65 years and over) represents a rapid growing segment of the population in many developed countries. Unlike earlier cohorts of older drivers that included many who were familiar with public transportation, the present cohort of older drivers historically has a greater reliance on the private automobile as their main form of transportation. Recent studies of older adults’ travel patterns reported automobile to be responsible for over 80% of the total number of hours spent on all trips. While older drivers, as a group, does not demonstrate a particular road risk, the evident demographic change and the increased physical fragility and severity of crash-related injuries makes older driver safety a prevalent public health issue. This study systematically reviewed the safety and mobility outcomes of existing strategies used internationally to manage older driver safety, with a specific focus on age-based testing (ABT), license restriction and self-regulation (i.e. voluntary limiting driving in potentially hazardous situations). ABT remains the most commonly adopted strategy by licensing authorities both within Australia and internationally. Heterogeneity in the development of functional declines, and in driving behaviours within the older driver population, makes age an unreliable index of driving capacity. Given the counter-productive safety and mobility outcomes of ABT strategies, their continued popularity within both the legislative and public domains remains problematic. Self-regulation may provide greater potential for reducing older drivers’ crash risk while maintaining their mobility and independence. The current body of literature on older drivers’ self-regulation is systematically reviewed. Despite being promoted by researchers and licensing authorities as a strategy to maintain older driver safety and mobility, the proportion of older drivers who self-regulate, and exactly how they do so, remains unclear. Future research on older drivers’ adoption of self-regulation, particularly the underlying psychological factors that underlies this process, is needed in order to promote its use within the older driver community.

Analysis of distance learner value assessment of distance education in engineering

Numerous research studies have evaluated whether distance learning is a viable alternative to traditional learning methods. These studies have generally made use of cross-sectional surveys for collecting data, comparing distance to traditional learners with intent to validate the former as a viable educational tool. Inherent fundamental differences between traditional and distance learning pedagogies, however, reduce the reliability of these comparative studies and constrain the validity of analyses resulting from this analytical approach. This article presents the results of a research project undertaken to analyze expectations and experiences of distance learners with their degree programs. Students were given surveys designed to examine factors expected to affect their overall value assessment of their distance learning program. Multivariate statistical analyses were used to analyze the correlations among variables of interest to support hypothesized relationships among them. Focusing on distance learners overcomes some of the limitations with assessments that compare off- and on-campus student experiences. Evaluation and modeling of distance learner responses on perceived value for money of the distance education they received indicate that the two most important influences are course communication requirements, which had a negative effect, and course logistical simplicity, which revealed a positive effect. Combined, these two factors accounted for approximately 47% of the variability in perceived value for money of the educational program of sampled students. A detailed focus on comparing expectations with outcomes of distance learners complements the existing literature dominated by comparative studies of distance and nondistance learners.

Mechanical tension as a driver of connective tissue growth in vitro

We propose the progressive mechanical expansion of cell-derived tissue analogues as a novel, growth-based approach to in vitro tissue engineering. The prevailing approach to producing tissue in vitro is to culture cells in an exogenous “scaffold” that provides a basic structure and mechanical support. This necessarily pre-defines the final size of the implantable material, and specific signals must be provided to stimulate appropriate cell growth, differentiation and matrix formation. In contrast, surgical skin expansion, driven by increments of stretch, produces increasing quantities of tissue without trauma or inflammation. This suggests that connective tissue cells have the innate ability to produce growth in response to elevated tension. We posit that this capacity is maintained in vitro, and that order-of-magnitude growth may be similarly attained in self-assembling cultures of cells and their own extracellular matrix. The hypothesis that growth of connective tissue analogues can be induced by mechanical expansion in vitro may be divided into three components: (1) tension stimulates cell proliferation and extracellular matrix synthesis; (2) the corresponding volume increase will relax the tension imparted by a fixed displacement; (3) the repeated application of static stretch will produce sustained growth and a tissue structure adapted to the tensile loading. Connective tissues exist in a state of residual tension, which is actively maintained by resident cells such as fibroblasts. Studies in vitro and in vivo have demonstrated that cellular survival, reproduction, and matrix synthesis and degradation are regulated by the mechanical environment. Order-of-magnitude increases in both bone and skin volume have been achieved clinically through staged expansion protocols, demonstrating that tension-driven growth can be sustained over prolonged periods. Furthermore, cell-derived tissue analogues have demonstrated mechanically advantageous structural adaptation in response to applied loading. Together, these data suggest that a program of incremental stretch constitutes an appealing way to replicate tissue growth in cell culture, by harnessing the constituent cells’ innate mechanical responsiveness. In addition to offering a platform to study the growth and structural adaptation of connective tissues, tension-driven growth presents a novel approach to in vitro tissue engineering. Because the supporting structure is secreted and organised by the cells themselves, growth is not restricted by a “scaffold” of fixed size. This also minimises potential adverse reactions to exogenous materials upon implantation. Most importantly, we posit that the growth induced by progressive stretch will allow substantial volumes of connective tissue to be produced from relatively small initial cell numbers.

Learner autonomy in language learning : teachers' beliefs

This case study research investigated the extent to which Vietnamese teachers understood the concept of learner autonomy and how their beliefs about this concept were applied in their teaching practices. Data were collected through two phases of the study and revealed that teachers generally lacked understanding about learner autonomy; there was an alignment between this lack of understanding and teachers' actual teaching practices regarding learner autonomy. The findings of this study will provide teachers and policy-makers new insights into learner autonomy against the backdrop of educational reforms in Vietnam.

Sustaining safety and mobility amongst older adults : the multilevel older driver self-regulation model

This multidisciplinary research advanced the current understanding of self-regulation – a critical component in safe and sustainable mobility for older adults. It investigates the sociodemographic and psychosocial factors that underlies older adults' self-regulation, and examines their travel behaviours using a combination of self-report, in-vehicle and wearable devices. This research developed a novel theoretical model that significantly predicts self-regulation and objectively driving behaviours among older drivers.

“I drove after drinking alcohol” and other risky driving behaviours reported by young novice drivers in Queensland, Australia

Background. Volitional risky driving behaviours such as drink- and drug-driving (i.e. substance-impaired driving) and speeding contribute to the overrepresentation of young novice drivers in road crash fatalities, and crash risk is greatest during the first year of independent driving in particular. Aims. To explore the: 1) self-reported compliance of drivers with road rules regarding substance-impaired driving and other risky driving behaviours (e.g., speeding, driving while tired), one year after progression from a Learner to a Provisional (intermediate) licence; and 2) interrelationships between substance-impaired driving and other risky driving behaviours (e.g., crashes, offences, and Police avoidance). Methods. Drivers (n = 1,076; 319 males) aged 18-20 years were surveyed regarding their sociodemographics (age, gender) and self-reported driving behaviours including crashes, offences, Police avoidance, and driving intentions. Results. A relatively small proportion of participants reported driving after taking drugs (6.3% of males, 1.3% of females) and drinking alcohol (18.5% of males, 11.8% of females). In comparison, a considerable proportion of participants reported at least occasionally exceeding speed limits (86.7% of novices), and risky behaviours like driving when tired (83.6% of novices). Substance-impaired driving was associated with avoiding Police, speeding, risky driving intentions, and self-reported crashes and offences. Forty-three percent of respondents who drove after taking drugs also reported alcohol-impaired driving. Discussion and Conclusions. Behaviours of concern include drink driving, speeding, novice driving errors such as misjudging the speed of oncoming vehicles, violations of graduated driver licensing passenger restrictions, driving tired, driving faster if in a bad mood, and active punishment avoidance. Given the interrelationships between the risky driving behaviours, a deeper understanding of influential factors is required to inform targeted and general countermeasure implementation and evaluation during this critical driving period. Notwithstanding this, a combination of enforcement, education, and engineering efforts appear necessary to improve the road safety of the young novice driver, and for the drink-driving young novice driver in particular.