Finanzas, cultura y poder en la comunidad Salasaca: un análisis de la experiencia del microcrédito y cooperativas indígenas

Este trabajo examina a los microcréditos como método para propulsar el desarrollo. A la vez, revela varios efectos de las microfinanzas sobre la pobreza, la cultura y las relaciones de poder a través de un análisis económico y etnográfico sobre los indígenas de Salasaca. Muestra que las instituciones financieras organizadas y dirigidas por otros indígenas, con el apoyo y los consejos de la comunidad internacional, exitosamente crean nuevos métodos sensibles a la cultura indígena para la distribución de créditos. Sin embargo, estos créditos no alivian la pobreza ni generan desarrollo económico y social dentro de la comunidad. Los préstamos otorgados por estas instituciones dan esperanza, pero no resultan en la creación de nuevas posibilidades para las comunidades indígenas. Además, la ampliación del acceso al crédito produce efectos corolarios negativos sobre la cultura y las relaciones de poder en la comunidad, beneficiando a los poderosos. Así, se muestra que la teoría de las microfinanzas tiene varias falencias.

Determinar provisiones anticíclicas en cartera de crédito, para mantener la solvencia en entidades bancarias del sistema financiero Ecuatoriano

En algunos países de América y Europa, se ha identificado una correlación entre la constitución de provisiones para cartera de crédito y el crecimiento del PIB, observándose que mientras existe un crecimiento económico, se ha reducido la cobertura de provisiones respecto de la cartera de crédito; y, viceversa. Es decir se observa que las provisiones tal y como están constituidas estarían afectadas por un factor cíclico Para eliminar este fenómeno, en España se desarrolló la Provisión Anticíclica (Estadística), la cual tiene como finalidad determinar una mejor cobertura del riesgo de crédito y reforzar así la solvencia de la banca a medio y largo plazo, permitiendo además contrarrestar el excesivo perfil cíclico de la provisión específica y genérica. El presente estudio partió de comprobar que la situación descrita anteriormente se presentaba en el Ecuador, para lo cual en primera instancia se determinó el ciclo económico, observándose en dicho período, la existencia del factor cíclico en las provisiones. Este comportamiento inestable de la cobertura de créditos, agudizó los problemas que se presentaron en la crisis financiera (1999), dando como resultado el cierre de numerosas entidades financieras y pérdidas financieras aún incalculables para el país. Con la finalidad de verificar las bondades de la constitución de una “Provisión Anticíclica” en el futuro, se desarrollaron escenarios que permitan determinar la situación del Ecuador de haber contado con una metodología de provisiones anticíclicas en la época de la crisis y cuál sería el monto actual provisiones anticíclicas que necesitaría el país para enfrentar una nueva crisis.

¿Complicamos demasiado las cosas en los contratos financieros internacionales? (Tema Central)

Este es un momento de gran agitación dentro de los mercados de crédito. Durante los últimos seis meses, decenas de billones de dólares de inversiones en papeles o instrumentos de deuda han tenido que ser castigados. Poderosas instituciones financieras han caído. Algunas de ellas se han visto obligadas a vender importantes porciones de su participación accionarial a inversionistas no convencionales con el fin de mantener los porcentajes mínimos de capital requerido.

Modelo de gestión para la implementación de los procesos de administración de riesgo de crédito de consumo por parte de las entidades del Sistema Bancario Ecuatoriano

Los modelos de medición de riesgo se han convertido en piezas fundamentales en la administración del riesgo de crédito en las entidades financieras; al respecto, si bien, la normativa de riesgo de crédito expedida por la Superintendencia de Bancos aborda conceptos fundamentales como: pérdida esperada, probabilidad de incumplimiento, nivel de exposición del riesgo de crédito, severidad de la pérdida, tasa de recuperación, y promueve a que las entidades conformen bases de datos para la cuantificación del riesgo de crédito; se observa que dichas disposiciones no han sido suficientes ni entendidas. En este contexto, el presente estudio de investigación contiene un análisis de los lineamientos emanados por el Comité de Supervisión Bancaria de Basilea para la cuantificación del riesgo de crédito; un análisis histórico de la evolución de la cartera de consumo en el sistema bancario ecuatoriano desde el año 2002 hasta diciembre de 2014, así como de los indicadores de morosidad y cobertura. Se realiza un repaso de las disposiciones de la normativa para la gestión del riesgo de crédito, y de la norma de calificación de activos de riesgo en la parte pertinente a la calificación de créditos de consumo; y se analiza y compara con los avances establecidos en la norma de riesgo de crédito, contemplado en el denominado Sistema de Administración de Riesgo de Crédito (SARC) definido por la Superintendencia Financiera de Colombia. Así también, se definen los aspectos mínimos a considerar en la construcción de modelos internos para créditos de consumo, y se enfatiza en el análisis de 15 bancos privados para el cálculo de matrices de transición, a fin de establecer los días a partir del cual el ente de control podría contemplar la definición del default, aspectos que se fundamentan en Anexo 2; se aborda también la importancia que tiene para preservar la solvencia de las entidades, la determinación adecuada no únicamente de las pérdidas esperadas, sino también de las pérdidas inesperadas. Se concluye con un análisis de los lineamientos mínimos que una entidad financiera debe considerar para la construcción de un modelo score sea de aprobación o de comportamiento, basado en las mejores prácticas internacionales, y de fácil entendimiento por parte de la alta gerencia y unidades de riesgos, mismos que se traducen en procedimientos o lineamientos que se sugiere sean acogidas por el ente de control, y están expuestos en Anexos 1, 3, 4 y 5.

What distinguishes the euro crisis from a ‘normal’ financial crisis? CEPS Commentary, 6 November 2012

This Commentary attempts to discern the distinguishing features between the present euro crisis and the financial crisis brought on in the US by the subprime lending disaster and the ensuing collapse of banks and other financial institutions in 2007-08. It finds that whereas the US was able to bring its crisis to an end by socialising the dubious debt and stabilising its valuation so that it could migrate to other investors capable of bearing the risk, this pattern can be only partly repeated in the eurozone, where both debt socialisation and a return to normal risk assessment are more problematic.. It concludes, nevertheless, that the crisis should now abate somewhat given that most risk-averse institutions have by now sold their holdings of peripheral countries’ sovereign debt and especially in light of the ECB’s assurances that it will not allow the euro to disintegrate.

Training to address attitudes and behaviour of rural bank managers in Madhya Pradesh, India: A programme to facilitate financial inclusion

Given their physical presence in India, banks are arguably well-placed to improve financial inclusion in rural areas. However, uncertain repayment capacities and high transaction costs mean formal financial institutions are often reluctant to lend to the rural poor. Conversely, high transaction costs in dealing with banks are also incurred by clients, through, for example, lengthy, cumbersome and potentially ignominious procedures. Negative attitudes towards poor clients can be an important component of such transaction costs. An applied research project funded by the Enterprise Development Innovation Fund (EDIF-DFID) developed an innovative training programme designed to encourage more positive attitudes of bank staff towards poor clients, and towards their own role in rural poverty alleviation and development. This paper examines the development of the training programme, its implementation, and the results of its evaluation. It is shown that training can bring about attitudinal change, which in turn is reflected in behaviour and social impact.

Training to address attitudes and behaviour of rural bank managers in Madhya Pradesh, India: a programme to facilitate financial inclusion

Given their physical presence in India, banks are arguably well-placed to improve financial inclusion in rural areas. However, uncertain repayment capacities and high transaction costs mean formal financial institutions are often reluctant to lend to the rural poor. Conversely, high transaction costs in dealing with banks are also incurred by clients, through, for example, lengthy, cumbersome and potentially ignominious procedures. Negative attitudes towards poor clients can be an important component of such transaction costs. An applied research project funded by the Enterprise Development Innovation Fund (EDIF-DFID) developed an innovative training programme designed to encourage more positive attitudes of bank staff towards poor clients, and towards their own role in rural poverty alleviation and development. This paper examines the development of the training programme, its implementation, and the results of its evaluation. It is shown that training can bring about attitudinal change, which in turn is reflected in behaviour and social impact. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

e-Government as a regulatory response to the financial crisis: the case of the UK

This paper seeks to discuss EU policies relating to securities markets, created in the wake of the financial crisis and how ICT and specifically e-Government can be utilised within this context. This study utilises the UK as a basis for our discussion. The recent financial crisis has caused a change of perspective in relation to government services and polices. The regulation of the financial sector has been heavily criticised and so is undergoing radical change in the UK and the rest of Europe. New regulatory bodies are being defined with more focus on taking a risk-based system-wide approach to regulating the financial sector. This approach aims to prevent financial institutions becoming too big to fail and thus require massive government bail outs. In addition, a new wave of EU regulation is in the wind to update risk management practices and to further protect investors. This paper discusses the reasons for the financial crisis and the UK’s past and future regulatory landscape. The current and future approach and strategies adopted by the UK’s financial regulators are reviewed as is the lifecycle of EU Directives. The regulatory responses to the crisis are discussed and upcoming regulatory hotspots identified. Discussion of these issues provides the context for our evaluation of the role e-Government and ICT in improving the regulatory system. We identify several processes, which are elementary for regulatory compliance and discuss how ICT is elementary in their implementation. The processes considered include those required for internal control and monitoring, risk management, record keeping and disclosure to regulatory bodies. We find these processes offer an excellent opportunity to adopt an e-Government approach to improve services to both regulated businesses and individual investors through the benefits derived from a more effective and efficient regulatory system.

Managing governance, risk and compliance for post-crisis regulatory change: a model of IS capabilities for financial organizations

The 2008-2009 financial crisis and related organizational and economic failures have meant that financial organizations are faced with a ‘tsunami’ of new regulatory obligations. This environment provides new managerial challenges as organizations are forced to engage in complex and costly remediation projects with short deadlines. Drawing from a longitudinal study conducted with nine financial institutions over twelve years, this paper identifies nine IS capabilities which underpin activities for managing regulatory themed governance, risk and compliance efforts. The research shows that many firms are now focused on meeting the Regulators’ deadlines at the expense of developing a strategic, enterprise-wide connected approach to compliance. Consequently, executives are in danger of implementing siloed compliance solutions within business functions. By evaluating the maturity of their IS capabilities which underpin regulatory adherence, managers have an opportunity to develop robust operational architectures and so are better positioned to face the challenges derived from shifting regulatory landscapes.

The role of big data in governance: a regulatory and legal perspective of analytics in global financial services

This paper discusses how global financial institutions are using big data analytics within their compliance operations. A lot of previous research has focused on the strategic implications of big data, but not much research has considered how such tools are entwined with regulatory breaches and investigations in financial services. Our work covers two in-depth qualitative case studies, each addressing a distinct type of analytics. The first case focuses on analytics which manage everyday compliance breaches and so are expected by managers. The second case focuses on analytics which facilitate investigation and litigation where serious unexpected breaches may have occurred. In doing so, the study focuses on the micro/data to understand how these tools are influencing operational risks and practices. The paper draws from two bodies of literature, the social studies of information systems and finance to guide our analysis and practitioner recommendations. The cases illustrate how technologies are implicated in multijurisdictional challenges and regulatory conflicts at each end of the operational risk spectrum. We find that compliance analytics are both shaping and reporting regulatory matters yet often firms may have difficulties in recruiting individuals with relevant but diverse skill sets. The cases also underscore the increasing need for financial organizations to adopt robust information governance policies and processes to ease future remediation efforts.

Exempt treatment of financial intermediation services under a value-added tax: an assessment of alternatives

Most countries with a value-added tax (VAT) exempt financial intermediation services from the tax. While exemption is generally perceived to be undesirable, it is also widely regarded as unavoidable because of technical difficulties in applying VAT to these services. This article reviews the standard rationale for exempt treatment and then considers the relative merits of two recent challenges raised in the tax literature. The first challenge involves the application of cash flow taxation to financial intermediation services in a manner that is consistent with an invoice/credit VAT (which is the dominant form). The second challenge proposes a comprehensive system of zero-rating of financial intermediation services, which is supported by a characterization of the household consumption of such services as non-taxable. The author argues that each of these alternatives to an exemption system suffers from both theoretical and practical implementation difficulties that make maintenance of exempt treatment the preferred approach, at least in the short term. There is, however, a simpler alternative to these fundamental reform options, involving modification of just one aspect of an exemption system to relieve some of its more problematic aspects. Many of the interpretative problems and associated inefficiencies that plague an exemption system arise from the need to distinguish between taxable and exempt financial services. The author argues that these difficulties can be eliminated, to a large extent, by basing the distinction on the form of prices. In support of this approach, he points out that it is consistent with the underlying reasons for the application of exempt treatment. The author considers a number of other possible modifications, but these are either rejected outright or viewed with a healthy skepticism. For example, the author is critical of the apparent rationale for the application of cash flow taxation to property and casualty insurers. He also rejects proposals that accept some looseness in the formulaic allocation by financial intermediaries of the costs of business inputs between exempt and taxable services for input credit purposes. In his view, an explicit reliance on pricing structures to draw the boundary between exempt and taxable services is preferable to the provision of relief for blocked input tax credits of financial intermediaries. Finally, the author is skeptical of the case for a policy response intended to address the tax bias under an exemption system for financial intermediaries to insource supplies.

Financial safety nets: reconstructing and modelling a policymaking metaphor

This paper explains that financial safety nets exist because of difficulties in enforcing contracts and shows that elements of deposit-insurance schemes differ substantially across countries. It shows that differences in the design of financial safety nets correlate significantly with differences in the informational and contracting environments of individual countries and that a country's GDP per capita is correlated with proxies for a country's level of: (1) informational transparency, (2) contract enforcement and deterrent rights, and (3) accountability for safety net officials. The analysis portrays deposit insurance as a part of a country's larger safety net and contracting environment. This means that there is no universal method for preventing and resolving banking problems and that the structure of a country's safety net should evolve over time with changes in private and government regulators' capacity for valuing financial institutions, disciplining risk taking and resolving insolvency promptly, and for being held accountable for how well they perform these tasks.

Corporate governance, board responsibilities and financial performance : the National Bank of Australia

This paper examines board responsibilities and accountability by management and Board of Directors in relation to the National Australia Bank's (NABs) performance. The NAB, an international financial service provider within the top thirty most profitable banks in the world, is compared with the Australian major banks. The evidence suggests that NABs poor performance was consistent with a lack of accountability, poor corporate governance and board dysfunction associated with fraudulent currency trading and the subsequent AUD360 million foreign currency losses. The NAB's performance is investigated by utilising accounting-based measures of profitability and cost efficiency as proxies for performance. Following the foreign currency trading losses in 2004 the NAB under-performed the other major Australian banks in terms of profits, cost to income ratio and growth in assets. In terms of profitability and cost efficiency NAB had the lowest ROE and ROA with a 19.7% fall in net profit and the highest cost to income ratio of 5 7.4% of any of the five largest banks. This case study provides an Australian example of poor corporate governance and suggests that financial institutions and regulators can learn from the NAB's experience. Failure to have top-down accountability can have significant impact on over-all performance, profitability and reputation. In particular, it suggests that management and Boards need to review their risk management procedures and regulators need to be more pro-active in their prudential oversight of financial institutions.

Aligning anti-money laundering, combating of financing of terror and financial inclusion : Questions to consider when FATF standards are clarified

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify key questions that should be addressed to enable the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) to provide guidance regarding the alignment of anti-money laundering, combating of financing of terror and financial inclusion objectives.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper draws on relevant research and documents of the FATF to identify questions that are relevant to consider when it formulates guidance regarding the alignment between financial integrity and financial inclusion objectives.
Findings – The FATF advises that its risk-based approach enables countries and institutions to further financial inclusion. It is, however, not clear what the FATF means when its uses the terms “risk” and “low risk”. It is also unclear whether current proposals for financial inclusion regulatory models will necessarily limit money laundering (ML) aswell as terror financing risks to levels that can be described as “low”. The FATF will need to clarify its own thinking regarding low money laundering and low terror financing risk before it will be able to provide clear guidance to national regulators and financial institutions.
Originality/value – This paper was drafted to inform current FATF discussions regarding guidance on financial inclusion. The questions are relevant to all stakeholders in financial regulation.

Using fund transfer pricing for comparing financial performance among business units

This study aims to demonstrate by a simplified analysis how fund transfer pricing can be used to measure financial performance taking into account the flow of resources in a bank with only two branches. The present study was developed in three sections. The first section provides information regarding fund transfer pricing and its characteristics. This is followed by a section with an analysis demonstrating how fund transfer pricing can assist top management to evaluate financial performance in a financial institutions with only two business units. Finally, the third section has the concluding remarks about the benefits and limitations of the use of fund transfer pricing. This study uses a simple version of fund transfer pricing system to address a further complex problem which is the exchange of services among business units in a decentralized organization. The analysis has shown how fund transfer pricing can be used to manage a bank, directing the efforts of branch managers.