Membrane-destabilizing activity of pH-responsive cationic lysine-based surfactants: role of charge position and alkyl chain length

Many strategies for treating diseases require the delivery of drugs into the cell cytoplasm following internalization within endosomal vesicles. Thus, compounds triggered by low pH to disrupt membranes and release endosomal contents into the cytosol are of particular interest. Here, we report novel cationic lysine-based surfactants (hydrochloride salts of N¿- and N¿-acyl lysine methyl ester) that differ in the position of the positive charge and the length of the alkyl chain. Amino acid-based surfactants could be promising novel biomaterials in drug delivery systems, given their biocompatible properties and low cytotoxic potential. We examined their ability to disrupt the cell membrane in a range of pH values, concentrations and incubation times, using a standard hemolysis assay as a model of endosomal membranes. Furthermore, we addressed the mechanism of surfactant-mediated membrane destabilization, including the effects of each surfactant on erythrocyte morphology as a function of pH. We found that only surfactants with the positive charge on the ¿-amino group of lysine showed pH-sensitive hemolytic activity and improved kinetics within the endosomal pH range, indicating that the positive charge position is critical for pH-responsive behavior. Moreover, our results showed that an increase in the alkyl chain length from 14 to 16 carbon atoms was associated with a lower ability to disrupt cell membranes. Knowledge on modulating surfactant-lipid bilayer interactions may help us to develop more efficient biocompatible amino acid-based drug delivery devices.

ORMDL proteins are a conserved new family of endoplasmic reticulum membrane proteins

Background: Annotations of completely sequenced genomes reveal that nearly half of the genes identified are of unknown function, and that some belong to uncharacterized gene families. To help resolve such issues, information can be obtained from the comparative analysis of homologous genes in model organisms. Results: While characterizing genes from the retinitis pigmentosa locus RP26 at 2q31-q33, we have identified a new gene, ORMDL1, that belongs to a novel gene family comprising three genes in humans (ORMDL1, ORMDL2 and ORMDL3), and homologs in yeast, microsporidia, plants, Drosophila, urochordates and vertebrates. The human genes are expressed ubiquitously in adult and fetal tissues. The Drosophila ORMDL homolog is also expressed throughout embryonic and larval stages, particularly in ectodermally derived tissues. The ORMDL genes encode transmembrane proteins anchored in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Double knockout of the two Saccharomyces cerevisiae homologs leads to decreased growth rate and greater sensitivity to tunicamycin and dithiothreitol. Yeast mutants can be rescued by human ORMDL homologs. Conclusions: From protein sequence comparisons we have defined a novel gene family, not previously recognized because of the absence of a characterized functional signature. The sequence conservation of this family from yeast to vertebrates, the maintenance of duplicate copies in different lineages, the ubiquitous pattern of expression in human and Drosophila, the partial functional redundancy of the yeast homologs and phenotypic rescue by the human homologs, strongly support functional conservation. Subcellular localization and the response of yeast mutants to specific agents point to the involvement of ORMDL in protein folding in the ER.

Regulation of peptidase activity in a three-dimensional aggregate model of brain tumor vasculature.

The abnormal vascular system of brain cancers inappropriately expresses membrane proteins, including proteolytic enzymes, ultimately resulting in blood extravasation. The production of inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines and nitric oxide, and tumor hypoxia have been implicated in these effects. We have previously shown that the activity of aminopeptidase A is increased in the abnormal vascular system of human and rat brain tumors. To study the mechanisms regulating the activities of peptidases in cerebral vasculature in brain tumors, we have developed a three-dimensional model of differentiated rat brain cells in aggregate cultures in which rat brain microvessels were incorporated. The secretion of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the culture medium of aggregates was used as an indicator of inflammatory activation. Addition to these aggregates of C6 glioma cell medium (C6-CM) conditioned under hypoxic or normoxic conditions or serum mimicked tumor-dependent hypoxia or conditions of dysfunction of brain tumor vasculature. Hypoxic and normoxic C6-CM, but not serum, regulated peptidase activity in aggregates, and in particular it increased the activity of aminopeptidase A determined using histoenzymography. Serum, but not C6-CM, increased IL-6 production, but did not increase aminopeptidase A activity in aggregates. Thus soluble glioma-derived factors, but not serum-derived factors, induce dysfunctions of cerebral vasculature by directly regulating the activity of peptidases, not involving inflammatory activation. Tumor hypoxia is not necessary to modulate peptidase activity.

Neuronal expression of the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 in rat dorsal root ganglia: modulation in the SNI model of neuropathic pain

La douleur neuropathique est une forme de douleur chronique apparaissant suite à des lésions du système nerveux somato-sensoriel. Caractérisée par une plasticité neuronale inadapté, elle est très souvent intense, invalidante, associe des symptômes comme l'allodynie ou l' hyperalgésie et reste difficile à traiter avec les agents thérapeutiques actuels. Le thème de mon travail de thèse se concentre sur des mécanismes moléculaires de modulation des canaux sodiques voltage-dépendants suite à une lésion du nerf périphérique. Dans l'article présenté en annexe, j'ai focalisé mon travail sur une protéine, Nedd4-2, qui est une ligase ubiquitine. Elle a pour rôle de réguler et d'internaliser dans la cellule des protéines membranaires dont les canaux sodiques. Suite aux lésions du système nerveux périphérique, il existe une hyperexcitabilité neuronale engendrée notamment par un surplus et une dysrégulation des canaux sodiques à la membrane cellulaire. Dans 1 'hypothèse que l'ubiquitine ligase Nedd4-2 soit présente dans les neurones sensitifs primaires et ait un rôle dans la régulation des canaux sodiques, nous avons identifié cette protéine dans les neurones nociceptifs primaires du rat. En utilisant des techniques de Western Blot et d'immunohistochimie, j'ai trouvé que Nedd4-2 est présente dans presque 50% des neurones du ganglion spinal et ces neurones sont principalement des neurones nociceptifs. Dans un modèle expérimental de douleur neuropathique (SN I, pour spared nerve injury), Nedd4-2 se retrouve significativement diminuée dans le tissu du ganglion spinal. J'ai également investigué 1' expression de 2 isoformes des canaux sodiques connues pour leur implication dans la douleur, Navl.7 et Navl.8, et ces 2 isoformes se retrouvent dans les mêmes neurones que Nedd4-2. La caractérisation détaillée est décrite dans le manuscrit: «Neuronal expression of the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 in rat dorsal root ganglia: modulation in the SNI model of neuropathic pain; Cachemaille M, Laedermann CJ, Pertin M, Abriel H, Gasselin RD, Decosterd 1.» Les résultats obtenus indiquent que Nedd4-2, en étant downrégulé après une lésion nerveuse, pourrait ainsi contribuer à une augmentation des canaux sodiques fonctionnels à la membrane. Ainsi Nedd4-2 pourrait être proposée comme cible thérapeutique de manière alternative aux bloqueurs de canaux sodiques. Ce travail a permis l'initiation d'autres expériences. J'ai contribué activement à la construction de vecteurs viraux type adéno-associé recombinant (rAA V2/6) et surexprimé la protéine in vivo dans les ganglions spinaux. Cette partie de mon travail se trouve intégrée dans d'autres travaux de mon laboratoire d'accueil qui a pu démontrer les effets fonctionnels de cette approche sur les courants sodiques enregistrés par électrophysiologie et une diminution de la douleur neuropathique chez la souris. - Abstract-Neuronal hyperexcitability following peripheral nerve lesions may stem from altered activity of voltagegated sodium channels (VGSCs), which gives rise toallodynia or hyperalgesia. In vitro, the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 is a negative regulator of VGSC a-subunits (Nav), in particular Nav1.7, a key actor in nociceptor excitability. We therefore studied Nedd4-2 in rat nociceptors, its co-expression with Nav1.7 and Nav1.8, and its regulation in pathology. Adult rats were submitted to the spared nerve injury (SNI) model of neuropathic pain or injected with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), a model of inflammatory pain. L4 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) were analyzed in shamoperated animals, seven days after SNI and 48 h after CFA with immunofluorescence and Western blot. We observed Nedd4-2 expression in almost 50% of DRG neurons, mostly small and medium-sized. A preponderant localization is found in the non-peptidergic sub-population. Additionally, 55.7± 2.7% and 55.0 ±3.6% of Nedd4-2-positive cells are co-labeled with Nav1.7 and Nav1.8 respectively. SNI significantly decreases the proportion of Nedd4-2-positive neurons from 45.9± 1.9% to 33.5± 0.7% (p < 0.01) and the total Nedd4-2 protein to 44%± 0.13% of its basal level (p <0.01, n = 4 animals in each group, mean± SEM). In contrast, no change in Nedd4-2 was found after peripheral inflammation induced by CFA. These results indicate that Nedd4-2 is present in nociceptive neurons, is downregulated after peripheral nerve injury, and might therefore contribute to the dysregulation of Navs involved in the hyperexcitability associated with peripheral nerve injuries.

Identification of HMX1 target genes: a predictive promoter model approach.

PURPOSE: A homozygous mutation in the H6 family homeobox 1 (HMX1) gene is responsible for a new oculoauricular defect leading to eye and auricular developmental abnormalities as well as early retinal degeneration (MIM 612109). However, the HMX1 pathway remains poorly understood, and in the first approach to better understand the pathway's function, we sought to identify the target genes. METHODS: We developed a predictive promoter model (PPM) approach using a comparative transcriptomic analysis in the retina at P15 of a mouse model lacking functional Hmx1 (dmbo mouse) and its respective wild-type. This PPM was based on the hypothesis that HMX1 binding site (HMX1-BS) clusters should be more represented in promoters of HMX1 target genes. The most differentially expressed genes in the microarray experiment that contained HMX1-BS clusters were used to generate the PPM, which was then statistically validated. Finally, we developed two genome-wide target prediction methods: one that focused on conserving PPM features in human and mouse and one that was based on the co-occurrence of HMX1-BS pairs fitting the PPM, in human or in mouse, independently. RESULTS: The PPM construction revealed that sarcoglycan, gamma (35kDa dystrophin-associated glycoprotein) (Sgcg), teashirt zinc finger homeobox 2 (Tshz2), and solute carrier family 6 (neurotransmitter transporter, glycine) (Slc6a9) genes represented Hmx1 targets in the mouse retina at P15. Moreover, the genome-wide target prediction revealed that mouse genes belonging to the retinal axon guidance pathway were targeted by Hmx1. Expression of these three genes was experimentally validated using a quantitative reverse transcription PCR approach. The inhibitory activity of Hmx1 on Sgcg, as well as protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, O (Ptpro) and Sema3f, two targets identified by the PPM, were validated with luciferase assay. CONCLUSIONS: Gene expression analysis between wild-type and dmbo mice allowed us to develop a PPM that identified the first target genes of Hmx1.

Cation Transport Coupled to ATP Hydrolysis By the (Na, K)-ATPase : an integrated, animated model

An Adobe (R) animation is presented for use in undergraduate Biochemistry courses, illustrating the mechanism of Na+ and K+ translocation coupled to ATP hydrolysis by the (Na, K)-ATPase, a P-2c-type ATPase, or ATP-powered ion pump that actively translocates cations across plasma membranes. The enzyme is also known as an E-1/E-2-ATPase as it undergoes conformational changes between the E-1 and E-2 forms during the pumping cycle, altering the affinity and accessibility of the transmembrane ion-binding sites. The animation is based on Horisberger's scheme that incorporates the most recent significant findings to have improved our understanding of the (Na, K)-ATPase structure function relationship. The movements of the various domains within the (Na, K)-ATPase alpha-subunit illustrate the conformational changes that occur during Na+ and K+ translocation across the membrane and emphasize involvement of the actuator, nucleotide, and phosphorylation domains, that is, the "core engine" of the pump, with respect to ATP binding, cation transport, and ADP and P-i release.

Trichophyton rubrum secreted and membrane-associated carboxypeptidases

Dermatophytes are the most common agents of superficial mycoses, and exclusively infect stratum corneum, nails or hair. Therefore, secreted proteolytic activity is considered a virulence trait of these fungi. In a medium containing protein as a sole nitrogen and carbon source Trichophyton rubrum secretes a metallocarboxypeptidase (TruMcpA) of the M14 family according to the MEROPS proteolytic enzyme database. TruMcpA is homologous to human pancreatic carboxypeptidase A, and is synthesized as a precursor in a preproprotein form. The propeptide is removed to generate the mature active enzyme alternatively by either one of two subtilisins which are concomitantly secreted by the fungus. In addition, T. rubrum was shown to possess two genes (TruSCPA and TruSCPB) encoding serine carboxypeptidases of the S10 family which are homologues of the previously characterized Aspergillus and Penicillium secreted acid carboxypeptidases. However, in contrast to the Aspergillus and Penicillium homologues, TruScpA and TruScpB enzymes are not secreted into the environment, but are membrane-associated with a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. During infection, T. rubrum secreted and GPI-anchored carboxypeptidases may contribute to fungal virulence by cooperating with previously characterized endoproteases and aminopeptidases in the degradation of compact keratinized tissues into assimilable amino acids and short peptides.

Modeling of non-isothermalvapor membrane separation with thermodynamic models and generalized mass transfer equations

A rigorous unit operation model is developed for vapor membrane separation. The new model is able to describe temperature, pressure, and concentration dependent permeation as wellreal fluid effects in vapor and gas separation with hydrocarbon selective rubbery polymeric membranes. The permeation through the membrane is described by a separate treatment of sorption and diffusion within the membrane. The chemical engineering thermodynamics is used to describe the equilibrium sorption of vapors and gases in rubbery membranes with equation of state models for polymeric systems. Also a new modification of the UNIFAC model is proposed for this purpose. Various thermodynamic models are extensively compared in order to verify the models' ability to predict and correlate experimental vapor-liquid equilibrium data. The penetrant transport through the selective layer of the membrane is described with the generalized Maxwell-Stefan equations, which are able to account for thebulk flux contribution as well as the diffusive coupling effect. A method is described to compute and correlate binary penetrant¿membrane diffusion coefficients from the experimental permeability coefficients at different temperatures and pressures. A fluid flow model for spiral-wound modules is derived from the conservation equation of mass, momentum, and energy. The conservation equations are presented in a discretized form by using the control volume approach. A combination of the permeation model and the fluid flow model yields the desired rigorous model for vapor membrane separation. The model is implemented into an inhouse process simulator and so vapor membrane separation may be evaluated as an integralpart of a process flowsheet.

ORMDL proteins are a conserved new family of endoplasmic reticulum membrane proteins

Background: Annotations of completely sequenced genomes reveal that nearly half of the genes identified are of unknown function, and that some belong to uncharacterized gene families. To help resolve such issues, information can be obtained from the comparative analysis of homologous genes in model organisms. Results: While characterizing genes from the retinitis pigmentosa locus RP26 at 2q31-q33, we have identified a new gene, ORMDL1, that belongs to a novel gene family comprising three genes in humans (ORMDL1, ORMDL2 and ORMDL3), and homologs in yeast, microsporidia, plants, Drosophila, urochordates and vertebrates. The human genes are expressed ubiquitously in adult and fetal tissues. The Drosophila ORMDL homolog is also expressed throughout embryonic and larval stages, particularly in ectodermally derived tissues. The ORMDL genes encode transmembrane proteins anchored in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Double knockout of the two Saccharomyces cerevisiae homologs leads to decreased growth rate and greater sensitivity to tunicamycin and dithiothreitol. Yeast mutants can be rescued by human ORMDL homologs. Conclusions: From protein sequence comparisons we have defined a novel gene family, not previously recognized because of the absence of a characterized functional signature. The sequence conservation of this family from yeast to vertebrates, the maintenance of duplicate copies in different lineages, the ubiquitous pattern of expression in human and Drosophila, the partial functional redundancy of the yeast homologs and phenotypic rescue by the human homologs, strongly support functional conservation. Subcellular localization and the response of yeast mutants to specific agents point to the involvement of ORMDL in protein folding in the ER.

The membrane-permeable calmodulin inhibitors (W-7/W-13) bind to membranes changing the electrostatic surface potential. Dual effect of W-13 on EGFR activation

Membrane-permeable calmodulin inhibitors, such as the napthalenesulfonamide derivatives W-7/W-13, trifluoperazine, and calmidazolium, are used widely to investigate the role of calcium/calmodulin (Ca2+/CaM) in living cells. If two chemically different inhibitors (e.g. W-7 and trifluoperazine) produce similar effects, investigators often assume the effects are due to CaM inhibition. Zeta potential measurements, however, show that these amphipathic weak bases bind to phospholipid vesicles at the same concentrations as they inhibit Ca 2 /CaM; this suggests that they also bind to the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, reducing its negative electrostatic surface potential. This change will cause electrostatically bound clusters of basic residues on peripheral (e.g. Src and K-Ras4B) and integral (e.g. epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)) proteins to translocate from the membrane to the cytoplasm. We measured inhibitor-mediated translocation of a simple basic peptide corresponding to the calmodulin-binding juxtamembrane region of the EGFR on model membranes; W-7/W-13 causes translocation of this peptide from membrane to solution, suggesting that caution must be exercised when interpreting the results obtained with these inhibitors in living cells. We present evidence that they exert dual effects on autophosphorylation of EGFR;W-13 inhibits epidermal growth factordependent EGFR autophosphorylation under different experimental conditions, but in the absence of epidermal growth factor, W-13 stimulates autophosphorylation of the receptor in four different cell types. Our interpretation is that the former effect is due toW-13inhibition of Ca 2 /CaM, but thelatter results could be due to binding of W-13 to the plasma membrane.

Lack of GDAP1 induces neuronal calcium and mitochondrial defects in a knockout mouse model of charcot-marie-tooth neuropathy.

Mutations in GDAP1, which encodes protein located in the mitochondrial outer membrane, cause axonal recessive (AR-CMT2), axonal dominant (CMT2K) and demyelinating recessive (CMT4A) forms of Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) neuropathy. Loss of function recessive mutations in GDAP1 are associated with decreased mitochondrial fission activity, while dominant mutations result in impairment of mitochondrial fusion with increased production of reactive oxygen species and susceptibility to apoptotic stimuli. GDAP1 silencing in vitro reduces Ca2+ inflow through store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) upon mobilization of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+, likely in association with an abnormal distribution of the mitochondrial network. To investigate the functional consequences of lack of GDAP1 in vivo, we generated a Gdap1 knockout mouse. The affected animals presented abnormal motor behavior starting at the age of 3 months. Electrophysiological and biochemical studies confirmed the axonal nature of the neuropathy whereas histopathological studies over time showed progressive loss of motor neurons (MNs) in the anterior horn of the spinal cord and defects in neuromuscular junctions. Analyses of cultured embryonic MNs and adult dorsal root ganglia neurons from affected animals demonstrated large and defective mitochondria, changes in the ER cisternae, reduced acetylation of cytoskeletal α-tubulin and increased autophagy vesicles. Importantly, MNs showed reduced cytosolic calcium and SOCE response. The development and characterization of the GDAP1 neuropathy mice model thus revealed that some of the pathophysiological changes present in axonal recessive form of the GDAP1-related CMT might be the consequence of changes in the mitochondrial network biology and mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum interaction leading to abnormalities in calcium homeostasis.

The role of counterions in the membrane-disruptive properties of pH-sensitive lysine-based surfactants

Surfactants are among the most versatile and widely used excipients in pharmaceuticals. This versatility, together with their pH-responsive membrane-disruptive activity and low toxicity, could also enable their potential application in drug delivery systems. Five anionic lysine-based surfactants which differ in the nature of their counterion were studied. Their capacity to disrupt the cell membrane was examined under a range of pH values, concentrations and incubation times, using a standard hemolysis assay as a model for endosomal membranes. The surfactants showed pH-sensitive hemolytic activity and improved kinetics at the endosomal pH range. Low concentrations resulted in negligible hemolysis at physiological pH and high membrane lytic activity at pH 5.4, which is in the range characteristic of late endosomes. With increasing concentration, the surfactants showed an enhanced capacity to lyse cell membranes, and also caused significant membrane disruption at physiological pH. This observation indicates that, at high concentrations, surfactant behavior is independent of pH. The mechanism of surfactant-mediated membrane destabilization was addressed, and scanning electron microscopy studies were also performed to evaluate the effects of the compounds on erythrocyte morphology as a function of pH. The in vitro cytotoxicity of the surfactants was assessed by MTT and NRU assays with the 3T3 cell line. The influence of different types of counterion on hemolytic activity and the potential applications of these surfactants in drug delivery are discussed. The possibility of using pH-sensitive surfactants for endosome disruption could hold great promise for intracellular drug delivery systems in future therapeutic applications.

Epithelial Sodium Channel-Mediated Sodium Transport Is Not Dependent on the Membrane-Bound Serine Protease CAP2/Tmprss4.

The membrane-bound serine protease CAP2/Tmprss4 has been previously identified in vitro as a positive regulator of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). To study its in vivo implication in ENaC-mediated sodium absorption, we generated a knockout mouse model for CAP2/Tmprss4. Mice deficient in CAP2/Tmprss4 were viable, fertile, and did not show any obvious histological abnormalities. Unexpectedly, when challenged with sodium-deficient diet, these mice did not develop any impairment in renal sodium handling as evidenced by normal plasma and urinary sodium and potassium electrolytes, as well as normal aldosterone levels. Despite minor alterations in ENaC mRNA expression, we found no evidence for altered proteolytic cleavage of ENaC subunits. In consequence, ENaC activity, as monitored by the amiloride-sensitive rectal potential difference (ΔPD), was not altered even under dietary sodium restriction. In summary, ENaC-mediated sodium balance is not affected by lack of CAP2/Tmprss4 expression and thus, does not seem to directly control ENaC expression and activity in vivo.

Computational toolbox towards evolutionary domain mapping of membrane proteins

Membrane proteins account for about 20% to 30% of all proteins encoded in a typical genome. They play central roles in multiple cellular processes mediating the interaction of the cell with its surrounding. Over 60% of all drug targets contain a membrane domain. The experimental difficulties of obtaining a crystal structural severely limits our ability or understanding of membrane protein function. Computational evolutionary studies of proteins are crucial for the prediction of 3D structures. In this project, we construct a tool able to quantify the evolutionary positive selective pressure on each residue of membrane proteins through maximum likelihood phylogeny reconstruction. The conservation plot combined with a structural homology model is also a potent tool to predict those residues that have essentials roles in the structure and function of a membrane protein and can be very useful in the design of validation experiments.

Planarians as a model to assess in vivo the role of matrix metalloproteinase genes during homeostasis and regeneration

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are major executors of extracellular matrix remodeling and, consequently, play key roles in the response of cells to their microenvironment. The experimentally accessible stem cell population and the robust regenerative capabilities of planarians offer an ideal model to study how modulation of the proteolytic system in the extracellular environment affects cell behavior in vivo. Genome-wide identification of Schmidtea mediterranea MMPs reveals that planarians possess four mmp-like genes. Two of them (mmp1 and mmp2) are strongly expressed in a subset of secretory cells and encode putative matrilysins. The other genes (mt-mmpA and mt-mmpB) are widely expressed in postmitotic cells and appear structurally related to membrane-type MMPs. These genes are conserved in the planarian Dugesia japonica. Here we explore the role of the planarian mmp genes by RNA interference (RNAi) during tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Our analyses identify essential functions for two of them. Following inhibition of mmp1 planarians display dramatic disruption of tissues architecture and significant decrease in cell death. These results suggest that mmp1 controls tissue turnover, modulating survival of postmitotic cells. Unexpectedly, the ability to regenerate is unaffected by mmp1(RNAi). Silencing of mt-mmpA alters tissue integrity and delays blastema growth, without affecting proliferation of stem cells. Our data support the possibility that the activity of this protease modulates cell migration and regulates anoikis, with a consequent pivotal role in tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Our data provide evidence of the involvement of specific MMPs in tissue homeostasis and regeneration and demonstrate that the behavior of planarian stem cells is critically dependent on the microenvironment surrounding these cells. Studying MMPs function in the planarian model provides evidence on how individual proteases work in vivo in adult tissues. These results have high potential to generate significant information for development of regenerative and anti cancer therapies.