Targeting the non-structural protein 1 from dengue virus to a dendritic cell population confers protective immunity to lethal virus challenge

Dengue is the most prevalent arboviral infection, affecting millions of people every year. Attempts to control such infection are being made, and the development of a vaccine is a World Health Organization priority. Among the proteins being tested as vaccine candidates in preclinical settings is the non-structural protein 1 (NS1). In the present study, we tested the immune responses generated by targeting the NS1 protein to two different dendritic cell populations. Dendritic cells (DCs) are important antigen presenting cells, and targeting proteins to maturing DCs has proved to be an efficient means of immunization. Antigen targeting is accomplished by the use of a monoclonal antibody (mAb) directed against a DC cell surface receptor fused to the protein of interest. We used two mAbs (αDEC205 and αDCIR2) to target two distinct DC populations, expressing either DEC205 or DCIR2 endocytic receptors, respectively, in mice. The fusion mAbs were successfully produced, bound to their respective receptors, and were used to immunize BALB/c mice in the presence of polyriboinosinic: polyribocytidylic acid (poly (I:C)), as a DC maturation stimulus. We observed induction of strong anti-NS1 antibody responses and similar antigen binding affinity irrespectively of the DC population targeted. Nevertheless, the IgG1/IgG2a ratios were different between mouse groups immunized with αDEC-NS1 and αDCIR2-NS1 mAbs. When we tested the induction of cellular immune responses, the number of IFN-γ producing cells was higher in αDEC-NS1 immunized animals. In addition, mice immunized with the αDEC-NS1 mAb were significantly protected from a lethal intracranial challenge with the DENV2 NGC strain when compared to mice immunized with αDCIR2-NS1 mAb. Protection was partially mediated by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells as depletion of these populations reduced both survival and morbidity signs. We conclude that targeting the NS1 protein to the DEC205(+) DC population with poly (I:C) opens perspectives for dengue vaccine development.

Untersuchungen zum Ectodomain shedding des Receptor for advanced glycation endproducts

Zu den Liganden des Zelloberflächenrezeptors RAGE gehören AGEs, S100-Proteine, HMGB1 und Aβ. RAGE wird daher eine Rolle bei verschiedenen neurologischen Erkrankungen sowie Diabetes, Arteriosklerose und Krebs zugesprochen. Des Weiteren geht eine Verringerung der Menge an sRAGE häufig mit diesen Krankheiten einher. Aus diesen Gründen stellt die pharmakologische Stimulierung der Proteolyse von RAGE eine vielversprechende Therapieform dar. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Steigerung der sRAGE-Bildung über PAC1-, V2- und OT-Rezeptoren möglich ist. Die Untersuchung der PAC1-Signalwege zeigte, dass PKCα/PKCβI, CaMKII, Ca2+-Ionen, PI3-Kinase und der MAP-Kinase-Weg wichtig für die Stimulierung sind und dass der PKA-Weg nicht beteiligt ist. Die dreimonatige Behandlung von Mäusen mit PACAP-38 weist darauf hin, dass eine Stimulierung des Ectodomain Sheddings von RAGE auch in vivo erfolgen kann. Die Untersuchung der Signalwege, ausgehend von den V2- und OT-Rezeptoren, zeigte, dass ebenfalls PKCα/PKCβI, CaMKII, Ca2+-Ionen zur Aktivierung der Proteasen führen, dagegen konnte weder ein Einfluss des PKA- noch des MAP-Kinase-Weges festgestellt werden. Außerdem wurden sowohl MMP-9 als auch ADAM-10 als RAGE-spaltende Proteasen identifiziert. Die nähere Untersuchung der RAGE-Spaltstelle erbrachte, dass keine spezifische Sequenz, sondern vielmehr die Sekundärstruktur eine Rolle bei der Erkennung durch die Proteasen spielt. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde weiterhin ein anti-RAGE Antikörper anhand einer neu entwickelten Methode zunächst gereinigt und dann erfolgreich an ein mit dem Fluoreszenzfarbstoff Rhodamin markiertes Polymer gekoppelt. Die Stimulierung der Proteolyse von Meprin β wurde auch untersucht und es konnte ebenfalls eine Beteiligung von ADAM-10 an der Spaltung nachgewiesen werden.

Safety and therapeutic efficacy of adoptive p53-specific T cell antigen receptor (TCR) gene transfer

Immunotherapy with T cells genetically modified by retroviral transfer of tumor-associated antigen (TAA)-specific T cell receptors (TCR) is a promising approach in targeting cancer. Therefore, using a universal TAA to target different tumor entities by only one therapeutic approach was the main criteria for our TAA-specific TCR. Here, an optimized (opt) αβ-chain p53(264-272)-specific and an opt single chain (sc) p53(264-272)-specific TCR were designed, to reduce mispairing reactions of endogenous and introduced TCR α and TCR β-chains, which might lead to off-target autoimmune reactions, similar to Graft-versus-host disease (GvHD). rnIn this study we evaluated the safety issues, which rise by the risk of p53TCR gene transfer-associated on/off-target toxicities as well as the anti-tumor response in vivo in a syngeneic HLA-A*0201 transgenic mouse model. We could successfully demonstrate that opt sc p53-specific TCR-redirected T cells prevent TCR mispairing-mediated lethal off-target autoimmunity in contrast to the parental opt αβ-chain p53-specific TCR. Since the sc p53-specific TCR proofed to be safe, all further studies were performed using sc p53-specific TCR redirected T cells only. Infusion of p53-specific TCR-redirected T cells in Human p53 knock-in (Hupki) mice after lymphodepletion-preconditioning regimen with either sublethal body irradiation (5Gy) or chemotherapy (fludarabine and cyclophosphamide) in combination with vaccination (anti-CD40, CpG1668 and p53(257-282) peptide) did not result in a depletion of hematopoietic cells. Moreover, adoptive transfer of high numbers of p53-specific TCR-redirected T cells in combination with Interleukin 2 (IL-2) also did not lead to toxic on-target reactions. The absence of host tissue damage was confirmed by histology and flow cytometry analysis. Furthermore, p53-specific TCR-redirected T cells were able to lyse p53+A2.1+ tumor cells in vitro. However, in vivo studies revealed the potent suppressive effect of the tumor microenvironment (TME) mediated by tumor-infiltrating myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC). Accordingly, we could improve an insufficient anti-tumor response in vivo after injection of the sc p53-specific TCR-redirected T cells by additional depletion of immunosuppressive cells of the myeloid lineage.rnTogether, these data suggest that the optimized sc p53(264-272)-specific TCR may represent a safe and efficient approach for TCR-based gene therapy. However, combinations of immunotherapeutic strategies are needed to enhance the efficacy of adoptive cell therapy (ACT)-mediated anti-tumor responses.

β1- and β3- voltage-gated sodium channel subunits modulate cell surface expression and glycosylation of Nav1.7 in HEK293 cells

Voltage-gated sodium channels (Navs) are glycoproteins composed of a pore-forming α-subunit and associated β-subunits that regulate Nav α-subunit plasma membrane density and biophysical properties. Glycosylation of the Nav α-subunit also directly affects Navs gating. β-subunits and glycosylation thus comodulate Nav α-subunit gating. We hypothesized that β-subunits could directly influence α-subunit glycosylation. Whole-cell patch clamp of HEK293 cells revealed that both β1- and β3-subunits coexpression shifted V ½ of steady-state activation and inactivation and increased Nav1.7-mediated I Na density. Biotinylation of cell surface proteins, combined with the use of deglycosydases, confirmed that Nav1.7 α-subunits exist in multiple glycosylated states. The α-subunit intracellular fraction was found in a core-glycosylated state, migrating at ~250 kDa. At the plasma membrane, in addition to the core-glycosylated form, a fully glycosylated form of Nav1.7 (~280 kDa) was observed. This higher band shifted to an intermediate band (~260 kDa) when β1-subunits were coexpressed, suggesting that the β1-subunit promotes an alternative glycosylated form of Nav1.7. Furthermore, the β1-subunit increased the expression of this alternative glycosylated form and the β3-subunit increased the expression of the core-glycosylated form of Nav1.7. This study describes a novel role for β1- and β3-subunits in the modulation of Nav1.7 α-subunit glycosylation and cell surface expression.

Cell surface galactosyltransferase structure and function during mesenchymal cell migration

In order to more fully understand the function of surface GalTase on mesenchymal cells, anti-GalTase IgG was used to (a) examine the role of surface GalTase during mouse mesenchymal cell migration on laminin and fibronectin; (b) define the plasma membrane distribution of GalTase by indirect immunofluorescence on migrating cells; (c) quantitate the level of surface GalTase on migrating cells; and (d) determine whether GalTase is associated with the cytoskeleton.^ Results show that anti-GalTase IgG was able to inhibit migration (48-80% as compared to basal rate) when cells were migrating on laminin-containing matrices. Monovalent Fab fragments inhibited migration on laminin by 90% after 4 hours. On the other hand, anti-GalTase IgG had no effect on cells migrating on fibronectin. This illustrates the substrate specificity of GalTase mediated-migration. When anti-GalTase IgG was used to localize surface GalTase on cells migratory on laminin, the enzyme was restricted to the leading and trailing edges of the cell. Assays indicate that GalTase is elevated approximately 3-fold when cells are migrating on laminin-containing matrices as compared to migratory cells on plastic or fibronectin, or as compared to stationary cells on any substrate. Laminin appears to recruit GalTase from preexisting intracellular pools to the growing lamellipodia.^ Double-label indirect immunofluorescence studies indicate that there is an apparent co-localization between some of the surface GalTase and some actin filaments. This relationship was explored by extracting cells prelabeled with anti-GalTase IgG and quantitated by radiolabeled second antibodies. Results show that 79% of the surface GalTase is associated with the cytoskeleton (as judged by detergent insolubility) when monovalent antibodies (Fab) are used. However virtually all (80-100%) of the surface GalTase can be induced to associate with the cytoskeleton when cross-linked with bivalent antibodies. Furthermore, when cells in suspension are incubated with divalent antibodies, an additional 66% of the surface GalTase can be induced to associate with the cytoskeleton. The elevated levels of surface GalTase detectable on cells migrating on laminin also appear to be associated with the cytoskeleton.^ Several lines of evidence suggest that GalTase is associated with F-actin. Data suggest that laminin induces the expression of surface GalTase to the growing lamellipodia where it becomes associated with the cytoskeleton leading to cell spreading and migration. (Abstract shortened with permission of author.) ^

Molecular analysis of cell surface $\beta$1,4-galactosyltransferase function during lamellipodal formation, cell polarization, and cell migration

The rate and direction of fibroblast locomotion is regulated by the formation of lamellipodia. In turn, lamellipodal formation is modulated in part by adhesion of that region of the cell from which the lamellipodia will extend or orginate. Cell surface $\beta$1,4-galactosyltransferase (GalTase) is one molecule that has been demonstrated to mediate cellular interactions with extracellular matrices. In the case of fibroblasts, GalTase must be associated with the actin cytoskeleton in order to mediate cellular adhesion to laminin. The object of this study was to determine how altering the quantity of GalTase capable of associating with the cytoskeleton impacts cell motility. Stably transfected cell lines were generated that have increased or decreased levels of surface GalTase relative to its cytoskeleton-binding sites. Biochemical analyses of these cells reveals that there is a limited number of sites on the cytoskeleton with which GalTase can interact. Altering the ratio of GalTase to its cytoskeleton binding sites does not affect the cells' abilities to spread, nor does it affect the localization of cytoskeletally-bound GalTase. It does, however, appear to interfere with stress fiber bundling. Cells with altered GalTase:cytoskeleton ratios change their polarity of laminin more frequently, as compared to controls. Therefore, the ectopic expression of GalTase cytoplasmic domains impairs a cell's ability to control the placement of lamellipodia. Cells were then tested for their ability to respond to a directional stimulus, a gradient of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). It was found that the ability of a cell to polarize in response to a gradient of PDGF is directly proportional to the quantity of GalTase associated with its cytoskeleton. Finally, the rate of unidirectional cell migration on laminin was found to be directly dependent upon surface GalTase expression and is inversely related to the ability of surface GalTase to interact with the cytoskeleton. It is therefore proposed that cytoskeletal assembly and lamellipodal formation can be regulated by the altering the ratio of cytoplasmic domains for specific matrix receptors, such as GalTase, relative to their cytoskeleton-binding sites. ^

cDNA cloning and expression of a novel cell surface-expressed \b heparan sulfate/heparin \b interacting \b protein (HIP) from human cell lines and functional studies of a synthetic HIP peptide

Heparan sulfate proteoglycans and their corresponding binding sites have been suggested to play an important role during the initial attachment of blastocysts to uterine epithelium and human trophoblastic cell lines to uterine epithelial cell lines. Previous studies on RL95 cells, a human uterine epithelial cell line, characterized a single class of cell surface heparin/heparan sulfate (HP/HS)-binding sites. Three major HP/HS-binding peptide fragments were isolated from RL95 cell surfaces by tryptic digestion and partial amino-terminal amino acid sequence from each peptide fragment was obtained. In the current study, using the approaches of reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and cDNA library screening, a novel cell surface $\rm\underline{H}$P/HS $\rm\underline{i}$nteracting $\rm\underline{p}$rotein (HIP) has been isolated from RL95 cells. The full-length cDNA of HIP encodes a protein of 259 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight of 17,754 Da and pI of 11.75. Transfection of HIP cDNA into NIH-3T3 cells demonstrated cell surface expression and a size similar to that of HIP expressed by human cells. Predicted amino acid sequence indicates that HIP lacks a membrane spanning region and has no consensus sites for glycosylation. Northern blot analysis detected a single transcript of 1.3 kb in both total RNA and poly(A$\sp+$) RNA. Examination of human cell lines and normal tissues using both Northern blot and Western blot analysis revealed that HIP is differentially expressed in a variety of human cell lines and normal tissues, but absent in some cell lines examined. HIP has about 80% homology, at the level of both mRNA and protein, to a rodent protein, designated as ribosomal protein L29. Thus, members of the L29 family may be displayed on cell surfaces where they participate in HP/HS binding events. Studies on a synthetic peptide derived from HIP demonstrate that HIP peptide binds HS/HP with high selectivity and has high affinity (Kd = 10 nM) for a subset of polysaccharides found in commercial HIP preparations. Moreover, HIP peptide also binds certain forms of cell surface, but not secreted or intracellular. HS expressed by RL95 and JAR cells. This peptide supports the attachment of several human trophoblastic cell lines and a variety of mammalian adherent cell lines in a HS-dependent fashion. Furthermore, studies on the subset of HP specifically recognized by HIP peptide indicate that this high-affinity HP (HA-HP) has a larger median MW and a greater negative charge density than bulk HP. The minimum size of oligosaccharide required to bind to HIP peptide with high affinity is a septa- or octasaccharide. HA-HP also quantitatively binds to antithrombin-III (AT-III) with high affinity, indicating that HIP peptide and AT-III may recognize the same or similar oligosaccharide structure(s). Furthermore, HIP peptide antagonizes HP action and promotes blood coagulation in both factor Xa- and thrombin-dependent assays. Finally, HA-HP recognized by HP peptide is highly enriched with anticoagulant activity relative to bulk HP. Collectively, these results demonstrate that HIP may play a role in the HP/HS-involved cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions and recognizes a motif in HP similar or identical to that recognized by AT-III and therefore, may modulate blood coagulation. ^

Cell surface $\beta$-1,4-galactosyltransferase function during invasion and metastasis

Metastasis is the complex process of tumor cell spread which is responsible for the majority of cancer-related deaths. Metastasis necessitates complex phenotypic changes, many of which are mediated by changes in the activities of cell surface molecules. One of these is cell surface $\beta$1,4-galactosyltransferase (GalTase), which is elevated on more highly metastatic cells. In this study, both molecular and biochemical methods were used to perturb and manipulate cell surface GalTase levels on K1735 murine melanoma cell lines in order to examine its function in metastasis.^ As expected, highly metastatic K1735 variants have higher cell surface GalTase than poorly metastatic variants. Stably transfected K1735 cell lines that overexpress surface GalTase were created. These cell lines were assayed for metastatic ability using an invasion chamber with Matrigel-coated filter inserts. Cells with increased surface GalTase were uniformly more invasive than neo transfected controls. With multiple cell lines, there was a direct correlation (r = 0.918) between surface GalTase activity and invasiveness. Homologous recombination was used to create K1735 cells with decreased levels of surface GalTase. These cells were uniformly less invasive than controls. Cell surface GalTase was inhibited using two different biochemical strategies. In both cases, inhibition of surface GalTase led to a decrease in in vivo metastatic ability of K1735 cells. This is the first direct experimental evidence addressing GalTase function in metastasis. These data provide several lines of independent evidence which show that cell surface GalTase facilitates invasion and metastasis. ^

Cell surface levels of endothelial ICAM-1 influence the transcellular or paracellular T-cell diapedesis across the blood-brain barrier

The extravasation of CD4(+) effector/memory T cells (TEM cells) across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a crucial step in the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) or multiple sclerosis (MS). Endothelial ICAM-1 and ICAM-2 are essential for CD4(+) TEM cell crawling on the BBB prior to diapedesis. Here, we investigated the influence of cell surface levels of endothelial ICAM-1 in determining the cellular route of CD4(+) TEM -cell diapedesis across cytokine treated primary mouse BBB endothelial cells under physiological flow. Inflammatory conditions, inducing high levels of endothelial ICAM-1, promoted rapid initiation of transcellular diapedesis of CD4(+) T cells across the BBB, while intermediate levels of endothelial ICAM-1 favored paracellular CD4(+) T-cell diapedesis. Importantly, the route of T-cell diapedesis across the BBB was independent of loss of BBB barrier properties. Unexpectedly, a low number of CD4(+) TEM cells was found to cross the inflamed BBB in the absence of endothelial ICAM-1 and ICAM-2 via an obviously alternatively regulated transcellular pathway. In vivo, this translated to the development of ameliorated EAE in ICAM-1(null) //ICAM-2(-/-) C57BL/6J mice. Taken together, our study demonstrates that cell surface levels of endothelial ICAM-1 rather than the inflammatory stimulus or BBB integrity influence the pathway of T-cell diapedesis across the BBB.

SYNTHETIC PROBES FOR STUDYING TUFTSIN-RECEPTOR INTERACTIONS ON HUMAN POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES

Tuftsin is an immunopotentiating tetrapeptide of the sequence L-Thr-L-Lys-L-Pro-L-Arg with anti-microbial and anti-tumor enhancing capabilities. These enhancing functions are manifested through the host's granulocytes and monocytes. In delineating tuftsin's mechanism of action, both radiolabeled and fluorescent probes were synthesized. The radiolabeled probe of tuftsin, L-proly-3,4-('3)H(N) -tuftsin, was obtained through the synthesis and subsequent catalytic hydrogenation of L-3,4-dehydroprolyl ('3)-tuftsin using tritium gas. This procedure yielded a probe with a specific activity of 44.9 Ci/mmole. This radiolabeled probe of tuftsin was used in competitive inhibition studies with tuftsin, the tuftsin analogues Lys-Pro-Arg, Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg(NO(,2)) and (DELTA)('3)-pro('3) -tuftsin as well as with the chemotactic peptide f-Met-Leu-Phe. From the competitive binding curves, the K(,D) for tuftsin was estimated to be 80 nM, a value that approaches the concentration of tuftsin that evokes a half maximal biological response. The approximate Ki's for the tuftsin analogues (33 nM) approached that of tuftsin itself (40 nM). On the other hand, approximately a two log difference in the Ki was seen with the chemotactic tripeptide, indicating that tuftsin may indeed be acting through the chemotactic peptide receptor. This conclusion is further strengthened by studies using an N-terminal derivitized mono-fluoresceinated tuftsin probe and image intensification microscopy. These studies showed that like the chemotactic peptide, tuftsin initially binds to diffusely distributed receptors on the surface of human granulocytes. The tuftsin-receptor complexes then rapidly redistribute to form patches (5 min @ 37(DEGREES)C) which are then internalized. Whether redistribution and internalization of tuftsin-receptor complexes is crucial in effecting a biological response, or simply an intermediary point leading ultimately to degradation, is still not clear. This process, however, may provide the target cell with an early time point in modulating the biological effects of tuftsin through down-regulation of cell surface receptor sites. ^

STUDIES ON THE CLASS I GLYCOPROTEINS OF THE MURINE MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX (TRANSPLANTATION ANTIGEN, LYMPHOCYTE, CELL SURFACE MOLECULE)

A series of studies were undertaken to analyze and compare various aspects of murine class I glycoproteins. An initial area of investigation characterized the Qa-1 alloantigens using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Analysis of the products of the Qa-1('b), Qa-1('c) and Qa-1('d) alleles indicated that these were distinct molecules as determined by their lack of comigration upon comparative two-dimensional gel analysis. The importance of asparagine-linked glycosylation in the cell surface expression of class I molecules was also examined. These studies employed tunicamycin, an inhibitor of N-linked glycosylation. Tunicamycin treatment of activated T lymphocytes diminished the surface expression of Qa-1 to undetectable levels; the levels of other class I molecules exhibited little or no decrease. These results indicated that N-linked glycosylation has a differential importance in the cell surface expression of various class I molecules. The molecular weight diversity of class I molecules was also investigated. Molecular weight determination of both the fully glycosylated and unglycosylated forms of H-2 and Qa/Tla region encoded molecules established that there is a significant variation in the sizes of these forms of various class I molecules. The most significant difference ((TURN)9,000 daltons) exists between the unglycosylated forms of H-2K('b) and Qa-2, suggesting that the structural organization of these two molecules may be very different. A comparative two-dimensional gel analysis of various class I glycoproteins isolated from resting and activated T and B lymphocytes indicated that class I molecules expressed on activated T cells exhibited an isoelectrophoretic pattern that was distinct from the isoelectrophoretic pattern of class I molecules expessed on the other cell populations. This difference was attributed to a lower sialic acid content of the molecules expressed on activated T cells. Analysis of cell homogenates determined that activated T cells contained a higher level of endogenous neuraminidase activity than was detected in the other populations, suggesting that this may be the basis of the lower sialic acid content. The relationship of the Qa-4 and Qa-2 alloantigens was also examined. It was established that upon mitogen activation, the expression of Qa-4 was greatly decreased, whereas Qa-2 expression was not decreased. However, an anti-Qa-2 monoclonal antibody blocked the binding of an anti-Qa-4 monoclonal antibody to resting cells. These studies established that Qa-4 is a determinant restricted to resting cells, which is closely associated on the surface with the Qa-2 molecule. ^

A common mechanism of defective channel trafficking underlying DFNA2 hearing loss result in different cell surface expression levels of KCNQ4 mutants

KCNQ4 mutations underlie DFNA2, a subtype of autosomal dominant hearing loss. We had previously identified the pore-region p.G296S mutation that impaired channel activity in two manners: it greatly reduced surface expression and abolished channel function. Moreover, G296S mutant exerted a strong dominant-negative effect on potassium currents by reducing the channel expression at the cell surface representing the first study to identify a trafficking-dependent dominant mechanism for the loss of KCNQ4 channel function in DFNA2. Here, we have investigated the pathogenic mechanism associated with all the described KCNQ4 mutations (F182L, W242X, E260K, D262V, L274H, W276S, L281S, G285C, G285S and G321S) that are located in different domains of the channel protein. F182L mutant showed a wild type-like cell-surface distribution in transiently transfected NIH3T3 fibroblasts and the recorded currents in Xenopus oocytes resembled those of the wild-type. The remaining KCNQ4 mutants abolished potassium currents, but displayed distinct levels of defective cell-surface expression in NIH3T3 as quantified by flow citometry. Co-localization studies revealed these mutants were retained in the ER, unless W242X, which showed a clear co-localization with Golgi apparatus. Interestingly, this mutation results in a truncated KCNQ4 protein at the S5 transmembrane domain, before the pore region, that escapes the protein quality control in the ER but does not reach the cell surface at normal levels. Currently we are investigating the trafficking behaviour and electrophysiological properties of several KCNQ4 truncated proteins artificially generated in order to identify specific motifs involved in channel retention/exportation. Altogether, our results indicate that a defect in KCNQ4 trafficking is the common mechanism underlying DFNA2

Cell surface expression of the Alzheimer disease-related presenilin proteins

The presenilin proteins PS-1 and PS-2 are crucially involved in Alzheimer disease (AD), but their molecular functions are not known. They are integral membrane proteins, but whether they can be expressed at the surface of cells has been in dispute. Here we show by immunofluorescence experiments, using anti-peptide antibodies specific for either PS-1 or PS-2, that live cultured DAMI cells and differentiated human NT2N neuronal cells are specifically immunolabeled for their endogenous as well as transfected presenilins, although the cells cannot be immunolabeled for their intracellular tubulin, unless they are first fixed and permeabilized. These and other results establish that portions of the presenilins are indeed expressed at the surfaces of these cells. These findings support our previous proposal that the presenilins on the surface of a cell engage in intercellular interactions with the β-amyloid precursor protein on the surface of a neighboring cell, as a critical step in the molecular and cellular mechanisms that lead to AD.