Cannabidiol protects oligodendrocyte progenitor cells from inflammation-induced apoptosis by attenuating endoplasmic reticulum stress

Cannabidiol (CBD) is the most abundant cannabinoid in Cannabis sativa that has no psychoactive properties. CBD has been approved to treat inflammation, pain and spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis (MS), of which demyelination and oligodendrocyte loss are hallmarks. Thus, we investigated the protective effects of CBD against the damage to oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) mediated by the immune system. Doses of 1 mu M CBD protect OPCs from oxidative stress by decreasing the production of reactive oxygen species. CBD also protects OPCs from apoptosis induced by LPS/IFN gamma through the decrease of caspase 3 induction via mechanisms that do not involve CB1, CB2, TRPV1 or PPAR gamma receptors. Tunicamycin-induced OPC death was attenuated by CBD, suggesting a role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the mode of action of CBD. This protection against ER stress-induced apoptosis was associated with reduced phosphorylation of eiF2 alpha, one of the initiators of the ER stress pathway. Indeed, CBD diminished the phosphorylation of PKR and eiF2 alpha induced by LPS/IFN gamma. The pro-survival effects of CBD in OPCs were accompanied by decreases in the expression of ER apoptotic effectors (CHOP, Bax and caspase 12), and increased expression of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2. These findings suggest that attenuation of the ER stress pathway is involved in the 'oligoprotective' effects of CBD during inflammation. Cell Death and Disease (2012) 3, e331; doi:10.1038/cddis.2012.71; published online 28 June 2012

Deregulation of apoptosis-related genes is associated with PRV1 overexpression and JAK2 V617F allele burden in Essential Thrombocythemia and Myelofibrosis

Background: Essential Thrombocythemia (ET) and Primary Myelofibrosis (PMF) are Chronic Myeloproliferative Neoplasms (MPN) characterized by clonal myeloproliferation/myeloaccumulation without cell maturation impairment. The JAK2 V617F mutation and PRV1 gene overexpression may contribute to MPN physiopathology. We hypothesized that deregulation of the apoptotic machinery may also play a role in the pathogenesis of ET and PMF. In this study we evaluated the apoptosis-related gene and protein expression of BCL2 family members in bone marrow CD34(+) hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) and peripheral blood leukocytes from ET and PMF patients. We also tested whether the gene expression results were correlated with JAK2 V617F allele burden percentage, PRV1 overexpression, and clinical and laboratory parameters. Results: By real time PCR assay, we observed that A1, MCL1, BIK and BID, as well as A1, BCLW and BAK gene expression were increased in ET and PMF CD34(+) cells respectively, while pro-apoptotic BAX and anti-apoptotic BCL2 mRNA levels were found to be lower in ET and PMF CD34(+) cells respectively, in relation to controls. In patients' leukocytes, we detected an upregulation of anti-apoptotic genes A1, BCL2, BCL-XL and BCLW. In contrast, pro-apoptotic BID and BIMEL expression were downregulated in ET leukocytes. Increased BCL-XL protein expression in PMF leukocytes and decreased BID protein expression in ET leukocytes were observed by Western Blot. In ET leukocytes, we found a correlation between JAK2 V617F allele burden and BAX, BIK and BAD gene expression and between A1, BAX and BIK and PRV1 gene expression. A negative correlation between PRV1 gene expression and platelet count was observed, as well as a positive correlation between PRV1 gene expression and splenomegaly. Conclusions: Our results suggest the participation of intrinsic apoptosis pathway in the MPN physiopathology. In addition, PRV1 and JAK2 V617F allele burden were linked to deregulation of the apoptotic machinery.

Clove and eugenol in noncytotoxic concentrations exert immunomodulatory/anti-inflammatory action on cytokine production by murine macrophages

Objectives The extract and essential oil of clove (Syzygium aromaticum) are widely used because of their medicinal properties. Eugenol is the most important component of clove, showing several biological properties. Herein we have analysed the immunomodulatory/anti-inflammatory effect of clove and eugenol on cytokine production (interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6 and IL-10) in vitro. Methods Macrophages were incubated with clove or eugenol (5, 10, 25, 50 or 100 mg/well) for 24 h. Concentrations that inhibited the production of cytokines were used before or after incubation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), to verify a preventive or therapeutic effect. Culture supernatants were harvested for measurement of cytokines by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Key findings Clove (100 mg/well) inhibited IL-1 beta, IL-6 and IL-10 production and exerted an efficient action either before or after LPS challenge for all cytokines. Eugenol did not affect IL-1 beta production but inhibited IL-6 and IL-10 production. The action of eugenol (50 or 100 mg/well) on IL-6 production prevented efficiently effects of LPS either before or after its addition, whereas on IL-10 production it counteracted significantly LPS action when added after LPS incubation. Conclusions Clove exerted immunomodulatory/anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting LPS action. A possible mechanism of action probably involved the suppression of the nuclear factor-kB pathway by eugenol, since it was the major compound found in clove

Caspase-mediated cleavage of the exosome subunit PM/Scl-75 during apoptosis

Recent studies have implicated the dying cell as a potential reservoir of modified autoantigens that might initiate and drive systemic autoimmunity in susceptible hosts. A number of subunits of the exosome, a complex of 3'→5' exoribonucleases that functions in a variety of cellular processes, are recognized by the so-called anti-PM/Scl autoantibodies, found predominantly in patients suffering from an overlap syndrome of myositis and scleroderma. Here we show that one of these subunits, PM/Scl-75, is cleaved during apoptosis. PM/Scl-75 cleavage is inhibited by several different caspase inhibitors. The analysis of PM/Scl-75 cleavage by recombinant caspase proteins shows that PM/Scl-75 is efficiently cleaved by caspase-1, to a smaller extent by caspase-8, and relatively inefficiently by caspase-3 and caspase-7. Cleavage of the PM/Scl-75 protein occurs in the C-terminal part of the protein at Asp369 (IILD369↓G), and at least a fraction of the resulting N-terminal fragments of PM/Scl-75 remains associated with the exosome. Finally, the implications of PM/Scl-75 cleavage for exosome function and the generation of anti-PM/Scl-75 autoantibodies are discussed.

HOXB7 mRNA is overexpressed in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas and its knockdown induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis

Background Human homeobox genes encode nuclear proteins that act as transcription factors involved in the control of differentiation and proliferation. Currently, the role of these genes in development and tumor progression has been extensively studied. Recently, increased expression of HOXB7 homeobox gene (HOXB7) in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas (PDAC) was shown to correlate with an invasive phenotype, lymph node metastasis and worse survival outcomes, but no influence on cell proliferation or viability was detected. In the present study, the effects arising from the knockdown of HOXB7 in PDAC cell lines was investigated. Methods Real time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) (Taqman) was employed to assess HOXB7 mRNA expression in 29 PDAC, 6 metastatic tissues, 24 peritumoral tissues and two PDAC cell lines. siRNA was used to knockdown HOXB7 mRNA in the cell lines and its consequences on apoptosis rate and cell proliferation were measured by flow cytometry and MTT assay respectively. Results Overexpression of HOXB7 mRNA was observed in the tumoral tissues and in the cell lines MIA PaCa-2 and Capan-1. HOXB7 knockdown elicited (1) an increase in the expression of the pro-apoptotic proteins BAX and BAD in both cell lines; (2) a decrease in the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein BCL-2 and in cyclin D1 and an increase in the number of apoptotic cells in the MIA PaCa-2 cell line; (3) accumulation of cell in sub-G1 phase in both cell lines; (4) the modulation of several biological processes, especially in MIA PaCa-2, such as proteasomal ubiquitin-dependent catabolic process and cell cycle. Conclusion The present study confirms the overexpression of HOXB7 mRNA expression in PDAC and demonstrates that decreasing its protein level by siRNA could significantly increase apoptosis and modulate several biological processes. HOXB7 might be a promising target for future therapies.

Maturation of humoral immune responses : Studies on the effects of antigen type, apoptosis and age

The humoral immune response is dependent on the formation of antibodies. Antibodies are produced by terminally differentiated B cells, plasma cells. Plasma cells are generated either directly from antigen challenged B cells, memory cells or from cells that have undergone the germinal center (GC) reaction. The GC is the main site for class switch, somatic hypermutation and generation of memory cells. Different factors, both internal and external, shape the outcome of the immune response. In this thesis, we have studied a few factors that influence the maturation of the humoral response. We have studied how age affects the response, and we show that responses against thymus dependent antigens (TD) are more affected than responses to thymus independent (TI) antigens, in concordance with the view that the T cell compartment is more affected by age than the B cell compartment. Furthermore, we demonstrate that priming early in life have a big influence on the immune response in the aged individual. Priming with a TI form of the carbohydrate dextran B512 (Dx) induces a reduction of IgG levels in later TD responses against Dx. We have evaluated possible mechanisms for this reduction. The reduction does not seem to be caused by clonal exhaustion or antibody mediated mechanisms. We also showed that the reduced TD response after TI priming can be induced against another molecule than Dx. With the hypothesis that TI antigens induce a plasma cell biased maturation of the responding B cells, we examined the presence of Blimp-1, a master regulator of plasma cell differentiation, in GCs induced by TD and TI antigen. Blimp-1 was found earlier in GCs induced by TI antigen and the staining intensity in these GCs was stronger than in TD antigen induced GCs, indicating that plasma cells might be continuously recruited from these GCs. B cells undergoing the GC reaction are thought to be under a strict selection pressure that removes cells with low affinity for the antigen and also cells that have acquired self-reactivity. We investigated the effect of apoptotic deficiencies on the accumulation of somatic mutations in GC B cells. In mice lacking the death receptor Fas, lpr mice, the frequency of mutations was increased but the pattern of the mutations did not differ from wild type mice. In contrast, mice over-expressing the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, had a lowered frequency of mutations and the mutations introduced had other characteristics.

Inibizione selettiva del gene MYCN mediante PNA (acidi peptido nucleici) anti-gene nel rabdomiosarcoma umano

MYCN oncogene amplification/expression is a feature of many childhood tumors, and some adult tumors, and it is associated with poor prognosis. While MYC expression is ubiquitary, MYCN has a restricted expression after birth and it is an ideal target for an effective therapy. PNAs belong to the latest class of nucleic acid-based therapeutics, and they can bind chromosomal DNA and block gene transcription (anti-gene activity). We have developed an anti-gene PNA that targets specifically the MYCN gene to block its transcription. We report for the first time MYCN targeted inhibition in Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) by the anti-MYCN-PNA in RMS cell lines (four ARMS and four ERMS) and in a xenograft RMS mouse model. Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common pediatric soft-tissue sarcoma, comprising two main subgroups [Alveolar (ARMS) and Embryonal (ERMS)]. ARMS is associated with a poorer prognosis. MYCN amplification is a feature of both the ERMS and ARMS, but the MYCN amplification and expression levels shows a significant correlation and are greater in ARMS, in which they are associated with adverse outcome. We found that MYCN mRNA and protein levels were higher in the four ARMS (RH30, RH4, RH28 and RMZ-RC2) than in the four ERMS (RH36, SMS-CTR, CCA and RD) cell lines. The potent inhibition of MYCN transcription was highly specific, it did not affect the MYC expression, it was followed by cell-growth inhibition in the RMS cell lines which correlated with the MYCN expression rate, and it led to complete cell-growth inhibition in ARMS cells. We used a mutated- PNA as control. MYCN silencing induced apoptosis. Global gene expression analysis (Affymetrix microarrays) in ARMS cells treated with the anti-MYCN-PNA revealed genes specifically induced or repressed, with both genes previously described as targets of N-myc or Myc, and new genes undescribed as targets of N-myc or Myc (mainly involved in cell cycle, apoptosis, cell motility, metastasis, angiogenesis and muscle development). The changes in the expression of the most relevant genes were confirmed by Real-Time PCR and western blot, and their expression after the MYCN silencing was evaluated in the other RMS cell lines. The in vivo study, using an ARMS xenograft murine model evaluated by micro-PET, showed a complete elimination of the metabolic tumor signal in most of the cases (70%) after anti-MYCN-PNA treatment (without toxicity), whereas treatment with the mutated-PNA had no effect. Our results strongly support the development of MYCN anti-gene therapy for the treatment of RMS, particularly for poor prognosis ARMS, and of other MYCN-expressing tumors.

Modulation of apoptosis by endogenously produced nitric oxide

Untersuchungen zur Expression der induzierbaren NO-Synthetase (NOS2) belegen eine häufige Expression dieses Enzyms in Tumoren unterschiedlicher Gewebe. Bislang ist jedoch ungeklärt, ob die Expression der NOS2 in Tumorzellen die apoptotische Eliminierung durch zytotoxische T-Zellen beeinflussen kann. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die Folgen einer endogenen NO-Synthese auf die Apoptosesensitivität von HEK293-Zellen untersucht. Um primäre NO-Wirkungen von NO-induzierten, sekundären (kompensatorischen) Veränderungen zu trennen, wurde mit einem induzierbaren Vektorsystem gearbeitet. Die NOS2 wurde zunächst unter der Kontrolle eines Ecdyson-sensitiven Promoters in HEK293-Zellen kloniert. Es konnten regulierbare NOS2-Klone selektiert werden, die nach Ponasteronbehandlung dosisabhängig die NOS2 exprimieren und NO synthetisieren. Die NOS2-Expression wurde durch Western Blot Analyse und Immunfluoreszenzfärbung dargestellt und die NO-Produktion mit Hilfe der Griess-Reaktion gemessen. An den NOS2-induzierten Zellen wurde dann der Einfluss von NO auf die CD95-vermittelte Apoptose analysiert. Es zeigte sich nach Stimulation des CD95-Rezeptors eine deutliche Korrelation der Apoptoserate mit der NOS2-Expression. In Kokulturexperimenten mit Peptid-spezifischen zytotoxischen T-Zellen zeigte sich, dass NO-produzierende Zielzellen effektiver eliminiert werden konnten. Auch nach Behandlung der Zellen mit TRAIL ergab sich eine höhere Apoptoserate in NO-produzierenden Zellen. Die weitere Analyse der durch NO beeinflussten Signalwege ergab eine Beteiligung von ER-Stress-vermittelten Apoptosewegen. Dies zeigte sich an der Hochregulation des ER-Stress-Proteins Grp78 (BiP) nach NOS2-Expression und der Spaltung der am ER-lokalisierten Caspase-4. Darüber hinaus konnte der schnellere Verlust des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials in Abhängigkeit von der NOS2-Expression nachgewiesen werden. Weiterhin wurde die Wirkung einer dauerhaften NO-Exposition auf die Apoptosesensitivität der Zellen untersucht. Auch ohne zusätzliche CD95-Stimulation induzierte eine kontinuierliche NOS2-Expression nach wenigen Tagen in den EcR293-NOS2-Zellen Apoptose. Diese Dauerbehandlung führte zum nahezu vollständigen Absterben der Kulturen. Einige Zellen überlebten jedoch diese Behandlung und wuchsen zu Zellklonen. Diese NO-resistenten Klone konnten isoliert werden. Sie zeigten eine zusätzliche Resistenz für CD95-vermittelte Apoptosesignale und waren besser vor dem Angriff Peptid-spezifischer CTLs geschützt. Die Apoptoseresistenz blieb auch nach längerer Kultur erhalten und scheint auf NO-induzierter Genotoxizität zu beruhen. Anhand dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass allein durch chronische NO-Behandlung eine Selektion apoptoseresistenter Zellen stattfinden kann.

Functional characterization of modified vaccinia virus Ankara-encoded anti-apoptotic proteins

Candidate vaccines based on the highly attenuated orthopoxvirus strain MVA are tested against various infectious and cancer diseases and, more profound, vaccines based on wildtype and recombinant viruses have been found safe and immunogenic in clinical trials. Compared to conventional vaccine strains, MVA lacks many functional genes for potentially important regulators of virus-host interactions. However, some gene functions responsible for counteraction of cellular antiviral pathways are still conserved in the genome of MVA and the inhibition of apoptosis seems to be one important mechanism, the virus is still able to interact with.rnrnVaccinia viruses encode several proteins which prevent the induction of virus-induced apoptosis. The vaccinia virus anti-apoptotic protein F1 was shown to counteract the activation of the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis in a highly effective manner. Another vaccinia virus protein, N1, like F1 shows structural and functional similarity to members of the cellular anti-apoptotic bcl-2 family and was also shown to inhibit apoptosis. The vaccinia virus early protein E3 inhibits programmed cell death by binding to and sequestration of dsRNA molecules, normally inducing cellular antiviral pathways also driving the induction of apoptosis. All three anti-apoptotic genes were functionally analyzed during this work.rn

Der enzymatische und anti-oxidative Mechanismus des anti-atherogenen Enzyms Paraoxonase-2

Das humane Enzym PON2 ist in eine Vielzahl pathophysiologischer Prozesse involviert und ist durch zwei Funktionen gekennzeichnet - eine enzymatische Laktonase-Aktivität und eine anti-oxidative Aktivität. Durch die Laktonase-Aktivität hydrolysiert PON2 vorwiegend das bakterielle Signalmolekül 3oxoC12. PON2 ist als Bestandteil des angeborenen Immunsystems anzusehen und trägt wahrscheinlich zur Immunabwehr gegen Infektionen mit den human-pathogenen Pseudomonas aeruginosa Bakterien bei. Durch die anti-oxidative Aktivität vermindert PON2 oxidative Schäden und verringert redox-abhängige pro-apoptotische Stimulation. Diese einzigartige Funktion von PON2 ist jedoch ambivalent zu betrachten, da hohe PON2-Spiegel zwar Arteriosklerose reduzieren können, aber im Verdacht stehen Tumorzellen zu stabilisieren.rnIn dieser Arbeit wurden die noch unbekannten Mechanismen und der Zusammenhang der enzymatischen und der anti-oxidativen Aktivität analysiert. In diesem Rahmen wurde gezeigt, dass PON2 spezifisch die Superoxidfreisetzung an Komplex I und III der Atmungskette in der inneren Mitochondrienmembran reduzieren kann. PON2 veränderte dabei weder die Aktivitäten der Superoxiddismutasen noch die Cytochrom C-Expression. Weiterhin konnte in dieser Arbeit erstmals gezeigt werden, dass PON2 O2- nicht direkt abbaut, sondern vielmehr dessen Bildung verhindert. Diese Erkenntnisse implizieren, dass PON2 die anti-oxidative Aktivität über eine Beeinflussung des Quinon-Pools vermittelt. Anhand von verschiedenen Punktmutationen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Histidinreste-114 und -133 für die Laktonase-Aktivität essentiell sind. Weiterhin wurden die Glykosylierungsstellen von PON2 identifiziert und gezeigt, dass die Glykosylierung, nicht aber der natürliche Polymorphismus Ser/Cys311 für die Laktonase-Aktivität von Bedeutung ist. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist, dass keine dieser Mutationen die anti-oxidative Aktivität beeinflusste, wodurch erstmals die Unabhängigkeit der beiden Funktionen von PON2 gezeigt werden konnte. rnEs war bekannt, dass PON2 gegen intrinsische und ER-Stress-induzierte Apoptose schützt. Die Spezifität der anti-oxidativen / anti-apoptotischen Wirkung wurde hier an einem weiteren pathophysiologischen Modell untersucht. 7-Ketocholesterol (7-KC) ist der Hauptbestandteil des pro-arteriosklerotischen oxLDL und verursacht in Zellen des Gefäßsystems ER-Stress, oxidativen Stress und Apoptose. Unerwarteterweise konnte PON2 Endothelzellen nicht gegen den 7-KC-induzierten Zelltod schützen. Mehrere unabhängige experimentelle Ansätze belegen, dass 7-KC in Endothelzellen im Gegensatz zu Gefäßmuskelzellen den Zelltod über Autophagie und nicht über ER-Stress oder intrinsische Apoptose bewirkt. Weiterhin führt 7-KC, wie auch 3oxoC12 und Thapsigargin zu einem Abbau der PON2-mRNA, die über die 5’UTR der PON2-mRNA vermittelt wird. Diese Arbeit vermittelt detaillierte mechanistische Einsichten in die Funktionen von PON2, die für ihre Rolle bei Arteriosklerose, in der körpereigenen Immunabwehr und bei Krebs entscheidend sind.rn

Die Rolle des anti-apoptotischen Proteins Mcl-1 für die Leber und das hepatozelluläre Karzinom

Myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1) ist ein anti-apoptotisches Mitglied der Bcl-2-Proteinfamilie. Als solches ist es in der Lage, die mitochondriale Aktivierung während der Apoptose zu hemmen. Dadurch schützt es Zellen bei zellulärem Stress (wie z.B. Differenzierung, Proliferation oder Virusinfektion) vor Apoptoseinduktion. Aufgrund dieser Eigenschaft ist es unabkömmlich während der Embryogenese und in verschiedenen hämatopoetischen Zellpopulationen. Des Weiteren ist Mcl-1 als Protoonkogen in verschiedenen humanen Tumorentitäten verstärkt exprimiert und kann so zu einer verminderten Apoptosesensitivität von Tumorzellen beitragen. Auch primäre humane Hepatozyten können nach Mcl-1-Induktion durch Wachstumsfaktorbehandlung gegenüber CD95-vermittelter Apoptose geschützt werden. Daher sollte untersucht werden, welche Bedeutung Mcl-1 im hepatozellulären Karzinom (HCC) und in der gesunden Leber einnimmt. Hierzu wurde zunächst humanes HCC-Gewebe hinsichtlich der Expression von Mcl-1 untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Mcl-1 sowohl auf mRNA- als auch auf Protein-Ebene in HCC-Gewebe verstärkt exprimiert ist im Vergleich zu benachbartem Normalgewebe. Auch in verschiedenen HCC-Zelllinien konnte eine starke Mcl-1-Expression nachgewiesen werden. Diese war vor allem über den PI3K/Akt-Signalweg reguliert. Eine Hemmung dieses Signalwegs führte zu einer Reduktion der Mcl-1-Expression und so zu einer Sensitivierung der Zellen gegenüber verschiedenen Chemotherapeutika und zielgerichteten Therapien. Des Weiteren wurde die Mcl-1-Expression spezifisch durch RNA-Interferenz gehemmt. Auch hier konnte gezeigt werden, dass Zellen mit unterdrückter Mcl-1-Expression deutlich sensitiver gegenüber verschiedenen Apoptose-induzierenden Substanzen reagierten. Eine kombinierte Hemmung der Mcl-1-Expression und der PI3-Kinase führte schließlich zu einer nochmals verstärkten Sensitivierung. Im Gegensatz dazu führte eine Überexpression von Mcl-1 zu einer Hemmung der Apoptoseinduktion. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde eine Mauslinie etabliert, welche spezifisch in Hepatozyten kein Mcl-1 exprimiert, um so die Bedeutung von Mcl-1 für die Leber in vivo zu untersuchen. Es zeigte sich, dass Mcl-1flox/flox-AlbCre-Mäuse bereits im Alter von acht Wochen eine verminderte Lebergröße aufweisen. Dies wurde verursacht durch spontane Apoptoseinduktion in den Mcl-1 negativen Hepatozyten. Hierdurch kam es zu einer Leberschädigung, ersichtlich durch erhöhte Transaminasenwerte, erhöhte Caspase-3-Aktivierung, und Schädigung der Gewebsstruktur. Zudem war als kompensatorischer Effekt die Zellproliferation erhöht, ohne dass sich jedoch das Lebergewicht an das von Kontrolltieren anglich. Interessanterweise kam es in Mcl-1flox/flox-AlbCre-Mäusen als Folge der chronischen Leberschädigung zur Entwicklung einer Leberfibrose, ersichtlich durch eine verstärkte Collageneinlagerung. Weiterhin reagierten Mcl-1flox/flox-AlbCre-Mäuse wesentlich empfindlicher gegenüber Todesrezeptor-vermittelter Apoptose. Diese Daten zeigen zum einen, dass Mcl-1 zur Apoptoseresistenz von HCC-Zellen beitragen kann. Zielgerichtete Therapien, welche die Expression von Mcl-1 hemmen, könnten folglich für die Therapie des HCCs von Interesse sein. Des Weiteren konnte in dieser Arbeit zum ersten Mal gezeigt werden, dass Mcl-1 ein zentraler anti-apoptotischer Faktor für Hepatozyten in vivo ist.

In vivo and in vitro effects of genistein as obesogenic/anti-obesogenic compound in the lipid metabolism of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Nowadays, soy is one of the most used ingredients in the formulation of fish feed, due to the ample market supply, lower market price, high protein concentration and favorable amino acid composition. Nevertheless, soybean meal products are rich and primary diet source of phytoestrogens, as genistein, which may have a potential negative impact on growth, hormonal regulation and lipid metabolism in fish. The principal aim of this study was to better understand in vivo and in vitro genistein’s effects on lipid metabolism of rainbow trout. In adipose tissue it was showed an unclear role of genistein on lipid metabolism in rainbow trout, and in liver an anti-obesogenic effect, with an up-regulation of autophagy-related genes LC3b (in adipose tissue) and ATG4b (in liver and adipose tissue), a down-regulation of apoptosis-related genes CASP3 (in adipose tissue) and CASP8 (in liver). An increase of VTG mRNA levels in liver was also observed. Genistein partially exerted these effects via estrogen- receptor dependent mechanism. In white muscle, genistein seemed to promote lipid turnover, up-regulating lipogenic (FAS and LXR) and lipolytic (HSL, PPARα and PPARβ) genes. It seemed that genistein could exert its lipolytic role via autophagic way (up-regulation of ATG4b and ATG12l), not through an apoptotic pathway (down-regulation of CASP3). The effects of genistein on lipid-metabolism and apoptosis-related genes in trout muscle were not dose-dependent, only on autophagy-related genes ATG4B and ATG12l. Moreover, a partial estrogenic activity of this phytoestrogen was also seen. Through in vitro analysis (MTT and ORO assay), instead, it was observed an anti-obesogenic effect of genistein on rainbow trout adipocytes, and this effect was not mediated by ERs. Both in vivo and in vitro, genistein exerted its effects in a dose-dependent manner.

Paracrine factors secreted by endothelial progenitor cells prevent oxidative stress-induced apoptosis of mature endothelial cells

Endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) play a fundamental role in tissue regeneration and vascular repair. Current research suggests that EPC are more resistant to oxidative stress as compared to differentiated endothelial cells. Here we hypothesized that EPC not only possess the ability to protect themselves against oxidative stress but also confer this protection upon differentiated endothelial cells by release of paracrine factors. To test this hypothesis, HUVEC incubated with conditioned medium obtained from early EPC cultures (EPC-CM) were exposed to H2O2 to assess the accumulation of intracellular ROS, extent of apoptosis and endothelial cell functionality. Under oxidative stress conditions HUVEC treated with EPC-CM exhibited substantially lower levels of intracellular oxidative stress (0.2+/-0.02 vs. 0.4+/-0.03 relative fluorescence units, p<0.05) compared to control medium. Moreover, the incubation with EPC-CM elevated the expression level of antioxidant enzymes in HUVEC (catalase: 2.6+/-0.4; copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu/ZnSOD): 1.6+/-0.1; manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD): 1.4+/-0.1-fold increase compared to control, all p<0.05). Furthermore, EPC-CM had the distinct potential to reverse the functional impairment of HUVEC as measured by their capability to form tubular structures in vitro. Finally, incubation of HUVEC with EPC-CM resulted in a significant reduction of apoptosis (0.34+/-0.01 vs. 1.52+/-0.12 relative fluorescence units, p<0.01) accompanied by an increased expression ratio of the anti/pro-apoptotic factors Bcl-2/Bax to 2.9+/-0.7-fold (compared to control, p<0.05). Most importantly, neutralization of selected cytokines such as VEGF, HGF, IL-8 and MMP-9 did not significantly reverse the cyto-protective effect of EPC-CM (p>0.05), suggesting that soluble factors secreted by EPC, possibly via broad synergistic actions, exert strong cyto-protective properties on differentiated endothelium through modulation of intracellular antioxidant defensive mechanisms and pro-survival signals.

Tumor necrosis factor sensitizes primary murine hepatocytes to Fas/CD95-induced apoptosis in a Bim- and Bid-dependent manner

Fas/CD95 is a critical mediator of cell death in many chronic and acute liver diseases and induces apoptosis in primary hepatocytes in vitro. In contrast, the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) fails to provoke cell death in isolated hepatocytes but has been implicated in hepatocyte apoptosis during liver diseases associated with chronic inflammation. Here we report that TNFα sensitizes primary murine hepatocytes cultured on collagen to Fas ligand (FasL)-induced apoptosis. This synergism is time-dependent and is specifically mediated by TNFα. Fas itself is essential for the sensitization, but neither Fas up-regulation nor endogenous FasL is responsible for this effect. Although FasL is shown to induce Bid-independent apoptosis in hepatocytes cultured on collagen, the sensitizing effect of TNFα is clearly dependent on Bid. Moreover, both c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation and Bim, another B cell lymphoma 2 homology domain 3 (BH3)-only protein, are crucial mediators of TNFα-induced apoptosis sensitization. Bim and Bid activate the mitochondrial amplification loop and induce cytochrome c release, a hallmark of type II apoptosis. The mechanism of TNFα-induced sensitization is supported by a mathematical model that correctly reproduces the biological findings. Finally, our results are physiologically relevant because TNFα also induces sensitivity to agonistic anti-Fas-induced liver damage. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that TNFα can cooperate with FasL to induce hepatocyte apoptosis by activating the BH3-only proteins Bim and Bid.

A novel TNFR1-triggered apoptosis pathway mediated by class IA PI3Ks in neutrophils

The most common form of neutrophil death is apoptosis. In the present study, we report surprising differences in the molecular mechanisms used for caspase activation between FAS/CD95-stimulated and TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1)-stimulated neutrophils. Whereas FAS-induced apoptosis was followed by caspase-8 activation and required Bid to initiate the mitochondrial amplification loop, TNF-?-induced apoptosis involved class IA PI3Ks, which were activated by MAPK p38. TNF-?-induced PI3K activation resulted in the generation of reactive oxygen species, which activated caspase-3, a mechanism that did not operate in neutrophils without active NADPH oxidase. We conclude that in neutrophils, proapoptotic pathways after TNFR1 stimulation are initiated by p38 and PI3K, but not by caspase-8, a finding that should be considered in anti-inflammatory drug-development strategies.