Studies on the assessment of the adequacy of anesthesia

Several hypnosis monitoring systems based on the processed electroencephalogram (EEG) have been developed for use during general anesthesia. The assessment of the analgesic component (antinociception) of general anesthesia is an emerging field of research. This study investigated the interaction of hypnosis and antinociception, the association of several physiological variables with the degree of intraoperative nociception, and aspects of EEG Bispectral Index Scale (BIS) monitoring during general anesthesia. In addition, EEG features and heart rate (HR) responses during desflurane and sevoflurane anesthesia were compared. A propofol bolus of 0.7 mg/kg was more effective than an alfentanil bolus of 0.5 mg in preventing the recurrence of movement responses during uterine dilatation and curettage (D C) after a propofol-alfentanil induction, combined with nitrous oxide (N2O). HR and several HR variability-, frontal electromyography (fEMG)-, pulse plethysmography (PPG)-, and EEG-derived variables were associated with surgery-induced movement responses. Movers were discriminated from non-movers mostly by the post-stimulus values per se or normalized with respect to the pre-stimulus values. In logistic regression analysis, the best classification performance was achieved with the combination of normalized fEMG power and HR during D C (overall accuracy 81%, sensitivity 53%, specificity 95%), and with the combination of normalized fEMG-related response entropy, electrocardiography (ECG) R-to-R interval (RRI), and PPG dicrotic notch amplitude during sevoflurane anesthesia (overall accuracy 96%, sensitivity 90%, specificity 100%). ECG electrode impedances after alcohol swab skin pretreatment alone were higher than impedances of designated EEG electrodes. The BIS values registered with ECG electrodes were higher than those registered simultaneously with EEG electrodes. No significant difference in the time to home-readiness after isoflurane-N2O or sevoflurane-N2O anesthesia was found, when the administration of the volatile agent was guided by BIS monitoring. All other early and intermediate recovery parameters were also similar. Transient epileptiform EEG activity was detected in eight of 15 sevoflurane patients during a rapid increase in the inspired volatile concentration, and in none of the 16 desflurane patients. The observed transient EEG changes did not adversely affect the recovery of the patients. Following the rapid increase in the inhaled desflurane concentration, HR increased transiently, reaching its maximum in two minutes. In the sevoflurane group, the increase was slower and more subtle. In conclusion, desflurane may be a safer volatile agent than sevoflurane in patients with a lowered seizure threshold. The tachycardia induced by a rapid increase in the inspired desflurane concentration may present a risk for patients with heart disease. Designated EEG electrodes may be superior to ECG electrodes in EEG BIS monitoring. When the administration of isoflurane or sevoflurane is adjusted to maintain BIS values at 50-60 in healthy ambulatory surgery patients, the speed and quality of recovery are similar after both isoflurane-N2O and sevoflurane-N2O anesthesia. When anesthesia is maintained by the inhalation of N2O and bolus doses of propofol and alfentanil in healthy unparalyzed patients, movement responses may be best avoided by ensuring a relatively deep hypnotic level with propofol. HR/RRI, fEMG, and PPG dicrotic notch amplitude are potential indicators of nociception during anesthesia, but their performance needs to be validated in future studies. Combining information from different sources may improve the discrimination of the level of nociception.

Measurements of adequacy of anesthesia and level of consciousness during surgery and intensive care

The adequacy of anesthesia has been studied since the introduction of balanced general anesthesia. Commercial monitors based on electroencephalographic (EEG) signal analysis have been available for monitoring the hypnotic component of anesthesia from the beginning of the 1990s. Monitors measuring the depth of anesthesia assess the cortical function of the brain, and have gained acceptance during surgical anesthesia with most of the anesthetic agents used. However, due to frequent artifacts, they are considered unsuitable for monitoring consciousness in intensive care patients. The assessment of analgesia is one of the cornerstones of general anesthesia. Prolonged surgical stress may lead to increased morbidity and delayed postoperative recovery. However, no validated monitoring method is currently available for evaluating analgesia during general anesthesia. Awareness during anesthesia is caused by an inadequate level of hypnosis. This rare but severe complication of general anesthesia may lead to marked emotional stress and possibly posttraumatic stress disorder. In the present series of studies, the incidence of awareness and recall during outpatient anesthesia was evaluated and compared with that of in inpatient anesthesia. A total of 1500 outpatients and 2343 inpatients underwent a structured interview. Clear intraoperative recollections were rare the incidence being 0.07% in outpatients and 0.13% in inpatients. No significant differences emerged between outpatients and inpatients. However, significantly smaller doses of sevoflurane were administered to outpatients with awareness than those without recollections (p<0.05). EEG artifacts in 16 brain-dead organ donors were evaluated during organ harvest surgery in a prospective, open, nonselective study. The source of the frontotemporal biosignals in brain-dead subjects was studied, and the resistance of bispectral index (BIS) and Entropy to the signal artifacts was compared. The hypothesis was that in brain-dead subjects, most of the biosignals recorded from the forehead would consist of artifacts. The original EEG was recorded and State Entropy (SE), Response Entropy (RE), and BIS were calculated and monitored during solid organ harvest. SE differed from zero (inactive EEG) in 28%, RE in 29%, and BIS in 68% of the total recording time (p<0.0001 for all). The median values during the operation were SE 0.0, RE 0.0, and BIS 3.0. In four of the 16 organ donors, EEG was not inactive, and unphysiologically distributed, nonreactive rhythmic theta activity was present in the original EEG signal. After the results from subjects with persistent residual EEG activity were excluded, SE, RE, and BIS differed from zero in 17%, 18%, and 62% of the recorded time, respectively (p<0.0001 for all). Due to various artifacts, the highest readings in all indices were recorded without neuromuscular blockade. The main sources of artifacts were electrocauterization, electromyography (EMG), 50-Hz artifact, handling of the donor, ballistocardiography, and electrocardiography. In a prospective, randomized study of 26 patients, the ability of Surgical Stress Index (SSI) to differentiate patients with two clinically different analgesic levels during shoulder surgery was evaluated. SSI values were lower in patients with an interscalene brachial plexus block than in patients without an additional plexus block. In all patients, anesthesia was maintained with desflurane, the concentration of which was targeted to maintain SE at 50. Increased blood pressure or heart rate (HR), movement, and coughing were considered signs of intraoperative nociception and treated with alfentanil. Photoplethysmographic waveforms were collected from the contralateral arm to the operated side, and SSI was calculated offline. Two minutes after skin incision, SSI was not increased in the brachial plexus block group and was lower (38 ± 13) than in the control group (58 ± 13, p<0.005). Among the controls, one minute prior to alfentanil administration, SSI value was higher than during periods of adequate antinociception, 59 ± 11 vs. 39 ± 12 (p<0.01). The total cumulative need for alfentanil was higher in controls (2.7 ± 1.2 mg) than in the brachial plexus block group (1.6 ± 0.5 mg, p=0.008). Tetanic stimulation to the ulnar region of the hand increased SSI significantly only among patients with a brachial plexus block not covering the site of stimulation. Prognostic value of EEG-derived indices was evaluated and compared with Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography (TCD), serum neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and S-100B after cardiac arrest. Thirty patients resuscitated from out-of-hospital arrest and treated with induced mild hypothermia for 24 h were included. Original EEG signal was recorded, and burst suppression ratio (BSR), RE, SE, and wavelet subband entropy (WSE) were calculated. Neurological outcome during the six-month period after arrest was assessed with the Glasgow-Pittsburgh Cerebral Performance Categories (CPC). Twenty patients had a CPC of 1-2, one patient had a CPC of 3, and nine patients died (CPC 5). BSR, RE, and SE differed between good (CPC 1-2) and poor (CPC 3-5) outcome groups (p=0.011, p=0.011, p=0.008, respectively) during the first 24 h after arrest. WSE was borderline higher in the good outcome group between 24 and 48 h after arrest (p=0.050). All patients with status epilepticus died, and their WSE values were lower (p=0.022). S-100B was lower in the good outcome group upon arrival at the intensive care unit (p=0.010). After hypothermia treatment, NSE and S-100B values were lower (p=0.002 for both) in the good outcome group. The pulsatile index was also lower in the good outcome group (p=0.004). In conclusion, the incidence of awareness in outpatient anesthesia did not differ from that in inpatient anesthesia. Outpatients are not at increased risk for intraoperative awareness relative to inpatients undergoing general anesthesia. SE, RE, and BIS showed non-zero values that normally indicate cortical neuronal function, but were in these subjects mostly due to artifacts after clinical brain death diagnosis. Entropy was more resistant to artifacts than BIS. During general anesthesia and surgery, SSI values were lower in patients with interscalene brachial plexus block covering the sites of nociceptive stimuli. In detecting nociceptive stimuli, SSI performed better than HR, blood pressure, or RE. BSR, RE, and SE differed between the good and poor neurological outcome groups during the first 24 h after cardiac arrest, and they may be an aid in differentiating patients with good neurological outcomes from those with poor outcomes after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

Management of persistent pain in the older people

Persistent pain is a commonly experienced symptom. It affects 25% of community-dwelling older adults and up to 80% of nursing home residents, and can have a major impact on quality of life and functional capacity. Unfortunately pain in older patients is often undertreated and misunderstood. Assessment of pain type and severity is important. Most older people, even with moderately impaired cognition, are able to self-report pain. Validated assessment tools using non-verbal pain cues are available for people with more advanced cognitive impairment. Management of pain in older people can be challenging. Physiological changes may impact on pain perception and the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of medications. Older people are often more sensitive to the adverse effects of analgesic medications and are at risk of drug–drug interactions due to the presence of co-morbidities and polypharmacy. In general, analgesic medications should be commenced at low doses, titrated based on effect and tolerability, and regularly reviewed. Contemporary pain management often utilises multiple analgesics in lower doses to optimise efficacy and avoid dose-related toxicity. A bio-psycho-social approach to the management of persistent pain, utilising a multidisciplinary team and including non-drug strategies, may produce the best results. The goal of pain management is not always to eliminate pain, since this may not be attainable, but rather to enhance function and improve quality of life. This article discusses persistent non-cancer pain in older people, its assessment and management, and the risks and benefits of pharmacological treatment in this population.

Pain measurement and management in elderly patients : Clinical studies in long term hospital care and after cardiac surgery

The proportion of patients over 75 years of age, receiving all different types of healthcare, is constantly increasing. The elderly undergo surgery and anaesthetic procedures more often than middle-aged patients. Poor pain management in the elderly is still an issue. Although the elderly consumes the greatest proportion of prescribed medicines in Western Europe, most clinical pharmacological studies have been performed in healthy volunteers or middle-aged patients. The aim of this study was to investigate pain measurement and management in cognitively impaired patients in long term hospital care and in cognitively normal elderly patients after cardiac surgery. This thesis incorporated 366 patients, including 86 home-dwelling or hospitalized elderly with chronic pain and 280 patients undergoing cardiac surgery with acute pain. The mean age of patients was 77 (SD ± 8) years and approximately 8400 pain measurements were performed with four pain scales: Verbal Rating Scale (VRS), the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), the Red Wedge Scale (RWS), and the Facial Pain Scale (FPS). Cognitive function, depression, functional ability in daily life, postoperative sedation and postoperative confusion were assessed with MMSE, GDS, Barthel Index, RASS, and CAM-ICU, respectively. The effects and plasma concentrations of fentanyl and oxycodone were measured in elderly (≥ 75 years) and middle-aged patients (≤ 60 years) and the opioid-sparing effect of pregabalin was studied after cardiac surgery. The VRS pain scores after movement correlated with the Barthel Index. The VRS was most successful in the groups of demented patients (MMSE 17-23, 11-16 and ≤ 10) and in elderly patients on the first day after cardiac surgery. The elderly had a higher plasma concentration of fentanyl at the end of surgery than younger patients. The plasma concentrations of oxycodone were comparable between the groups. Pain intensity on the VRS was lower and the sedation scores were higher in the elderly. Total oxycodone consumption during five postoperative days was reduced by 48% and the CAM-ICU scores were higher on the first postoperative day in the pregabalin group. The incidence of postoperative pain during movement was lower in the pregabalin group three months after surgery. This investigation demonstrates that chronic pain did not seem to impair daily activities in home-dwelling Finnish elderly. The VRS appeared to be applicable for elderly patients with clear cognitive dysfunction (MMSE ≤17) and it was the most feasible pain scale for the early postoperative period after cardiac surgery. After cardiac surgery, plasma concentrations of fentanyl in elderly were elevated, although oxycodone concentrations were at similar level compared to middle-aged patients. The elderly had less pain and were more sedated after doses of oxycodone. Therefore, particular attention must be given to individual dosing of the opioids in elderly surgical patients, who often need a smaller amount for adequate analgesia than middle-aged patients. The administration of pregabalin reduced postoperative oxycodone consumption after cardiac surgery. Pregabalin-treated patients had less confusion, and additionally to less postoperative pain on the first postoperative day and during movement at three months post-surgery. Pregabalin might be a new alternative as analgesic for acute postoperative and chronic pain management in the elderly. Its clinical role and safety remains to be verified in large-scale randomized and controlled studies. In the future, many clinical trials in the older category of patients will be needed to facilitate improvements in health care methods.

Molecular Docking Studies of Novel Palmitoyl-ligands for Cyclooxygenase-2

An in silico approach was adopted to identify potential cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors through molecular docking studies. The in vivo studies indicated that synthetic palmitoyl derivatives of salicylic acid, para amino phenol, para amino benzoic acid, and anthranilic acid possessed significant pharmacological activities like anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activities. None of the tested substances produced any significant gastric lesions in experimental animals. In an attempt to understand the ligandprotein interactions in terms of the binding affinity, the above synthetic molecules were subjected to docking analysis using AutoDock. The palmitoyl derivatives palmitoyl anthranilic acid, palmitoyl para amino benzoic acid, palmitoyl para amino phenol, and palmitoyl salicylic acid showed better binding energy than the known inhibitor diclofenac bound to 1PXX. All the palmitoyl derivatives made similar interactions with the binding site residues of cyclooxygenase-2 as compared to that of the known inhibitor. Thus, structure-based drug discovery approach was successfully employed to identify some promising pro-drugs for the treatment of pain and inflammation.

Infrared Spectroscopic Studies to Understand the Effect of Drugs at Molecular Level

In the recent past, there have been enormous efforts to understand effect of drugs on human body. Prior to understand the effect of drugs on human body most of the experiments are carried out on cells or model organisms. Here we present our study on the effect of chemotherapeutic drugs on cancer cells and the acetaminophen (APAP) induced hepatotoxicity in mouse model. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDIs) have attracted attention as potential drug molecules for the treatment of cancer. These are the chemotherapeutic drugs which have indirect mechanistic action against cancer cells via acting against histone deacetylases (HDAC). It has been known that different HDAC enzymes are over-expressed in various types of cancers for example; HDAC1 is over expressed in prostate, gastric and breast carcinomas. Therefore, in order to optimise chemotherapy, it is important to determine the efficacy of various classes of HDAC inhibitor drugs against variety of over-expressed HDAC enzymes. In the present study, FTIR microspectroscopy has been employed to predict the acetylation and propionylation brought in by HDIs. The liver plays an important role in cellular metabolism and is highly susceptible to drug toxicity. APAP which is an analgesic and antipyretic drug is extensively used for therapeutic purposes and has become the most common cause of acute liver failure (ALF). In the current study, we have focused to understand APAP induced hepatotoxicity using FTIR microspectroscopy. In the IR spectrum the bands corresponding to glycogen, ester group and were found to be suitable markers to predict liver injury at early time point (0.5hr) due to APAP both in tissue and serum in comparison to standard biochemical assays. Our studies show the potential of FTIR spectroscopy as a rapid, sensitive and non invasive detection technique for future clinical diagnosis.

Synthesis, characterization and pharmacological study of 4,5-dihydropyrazolines carrying pyrimidine moiety

A series of 5-bromo-2-(3,5-diaryl-4,5-dihydro-1H-Pyrazol-1-yl)pyrimidine were prepared under conventional heating as well as microwave reaction condition. The newly synthesized compounds were characterized on the basis of elemental, spectral and single crystal X-ray studies. These new compounds were screened for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities. Some of these compounds exhibited potent biological activities compared to the standard drug. (C) 2012 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Evaluation of benzothiophene carboxamides as analgesics and anti-inflammatory agents

Nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) represent standard therapy for the alleviation of pain and inflammation. At present various classes of compounds have been reported as selective inhibitors of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). However, they are associated with adverse side effects. To address these issues, we report here a new class of compounds that exhibit potent analgesic and anti-inflammatory response. Substituted bromo-benzothiophene carboxamides (4-11) were examined for their analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. Our findings demonstrate that newly synthesized bromo-benzothiophene carboxamide derivatives 4, 6, and 8 attenuate nociception and inflammation at lower concentration than classical NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen. These compounds act by selectively inhibiting COX-2 and by disrupting the prostaglandin-E2-dependent positive feedback of COX-2 regulation, which was further substantiated by reduction in the levels of cytokines, chemokines, neutrophil accumulation, synthesis of prostaglandin-E2, expression of COX-2, and neutrophil activation at lower concentration than the classic NSAID ibuprofen. Toxicological study reveals that these compounds are well tolerated and metabolized to avoid any toxicity. Thus, these molecules represent a new class of analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents. (c) 2014 IUBMB Life, 66(3):201-211, 2014

A multi-scale approach to shaping carbon nanotube structures for hollow microneedles

The concept of a carbon nanotube microneedle array is explored in this thesis from multiple perspectives including microneedle fabrication, physical aspects of transdermal delivery, and in vivo transdermal drug delivery experiments. Starting with standard techniques in carbon nanotube (CNT) fabrication, including catalyst patterning and chemical vapor deposition, vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes are utilized as a scaffold to define the shape of the hollow microneedle. Passive, scalable techniques based on capillary action and unique photolithographic methods are utilized to produce a CNT-polymer composite microneedle. Specific examples of CNT-polyimide and CNT-epoxy microneedles are investigated. Further analysis of the transport properties of polymer resins reveals general requirements for applying arbitrary polymers to the fabrication process.

The bottom-up fabrication approach embodied by vertically-aligned carbon nanotubes allows for more direct construction of complex high-aspect ratio features than standard top-down fabrication approaches, making microneedles an ideal application for CNTs. However, current vertically-aligned CNT fabrication techniques only allow for the production of extruded geometries with a constant cross-sectional area, such as cylinders. To rectify this limitation, isotropic oxygen etching is introduced as a novel fabrication technique to create true 3D CNT geometry. Oxygen etching is utilized to create a conical geometry from a cylindrical CNT structure as well as create complex shape transformations in other CNT geometries.

CNT-polymer composite microneedles are anchored onto a common polymer base less than 50 µm thick, which allows for the microneedles to be incorporated into multiple drug delivery platforms, including modified hypodermic syringes and silicone skin patches. Cylindrical microneedles are fabricated with 100 µm outer diameter and height of 200-250 µm with a central cavity, or lumen, diameter of 30 µm to facilitate liquid drug flow. In vitro delivery experiments in swine skin demonstrate the ability of the microneedles to successfully penetrate the skin and deliver aqueous solutions.

An in vivo study was performed to assess the ability of the CNT-polymer microneedles to deliver drugs transdermally. CNT-polymer microneedles are attached to a hand actuated silicone skin patch that holds a liquid reservoir of drugs. Fentanyl, a potent analgesic, was administered to New Zealand White Rabbits through 3 routes of delivery: topical patch, CNT-polymer microneedles, and subcutaneous hypodermic injection. Results demonstrate that the CNT-polymer microneedles have a similar onset of action as the topical patch. CNT-polymer microneedles were also vetted as a painless delivery approach compared to hypodermic injection. Comparative analysis with contemporary microneedle designs demonstrates that the delivery achieved through CNT-polymer microneedles is akin to current hollow microneedle architectures. The inherent advantage of applying a bottom-up fabrication approach alongside similar delivery performance to contemporary microneedle designs demonstrates that the CNT-polymer composite microneedle is a viable architecture in the emerging field of painless transdermal delivery.

Avaliação do potencial anti-inflamatório agudo e crônico e imunossupressor do extrato etanólico de Pterodon polygalaeflorus através de estudos in vivo e in vitro

O gênero Pterodon pertence à família das Papilonaceas e inclui cinco espécies nativas do Brasil: P. pubescens Benth., P. emarginatus Vog., P. apparicioi Pedersoli e P. abruptus Benth., sendo a espécie objeto deste estudo a P. polygalaeflorus Benth.. Seus frutos são livremente comercializados em mercados da flora medicinal e utilizados pela medicina popular devido a propriedades anti-reumática, analgésica, antiinflamatória, dentre outros efeitos associados a esses frutos. O principal uso popular está relacionado ao efeito antiartrítico que parece se encontrar na fração oleosa do fruto. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o extrato etanólico de Pterodon polygalaeflorus (EEPpg) quanto ao seu potencial antiinflamatório crônico através do modelo de artrite induzida por colágeno (CIA) e seu efeito sobre os linfócitos in vitro, bem como sobre a expansão de células MAC-1+ induzida por adjuvante completo de Freund (AFC). A caracterização química do EEPpg foi realizada por cromatografia em camada delgada (TLC), cromatografia líquida de alta performance (HPLC) e cromatografia gasosa acoplada a espectrômetro de massa (GC-MS), através dos quais uma gama de compostos, incluindo terpenóides de polaridades variadas e flavonóides, foram observados. No modelo de CIA, o EEPpg reduziu significativamente parâmetros associados ao desenvolvimento e progressão da doença e à severidade da doença , inibindo em até 99% o seu desenvolvimento e levando a ausência de sinais clínicos evidentes após tratamento com as menores doses do extrato (0,01 mg/kg e 0,001 mg/kg). O tratamento com EEPpg também reduziu características histopatológicas típicas de articulações de animais com CIA, que também são observadas na artrite reumatóide. O EEPpg reduziu significativamente o peso dos linfonodos dos camundongos, bem como o número absoluto de segmentados, monócitos e linfócitos no sangue. In vitro, O EEPpg mostrou uma atividade anti-proliferativa dos esplenócitos estimulados com concanavalina A (Con A) ou lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) analisada através do ensaio de redução do sal de tetrazólio MTT, corroborada pelo seu efeito sobre o ciclo celular de linfócitos estimulados com Con A, onde o EEPpg nas concentrações de 5, 10 e 20 μg/mL reduziu significativamente, de maneira concentração-dependente, o número de células nas fases S+G2/M e aumentou na fase G0/G1 do ciclo celular. O efeito anti-proliferativo do EEPpg parece também estar associado ao aumento da apoptose dos linfócitos após estimulação com Con A, com aumento estatisticamente significativo no percentual de células mortas por apoptose nas maiores concentrações . O EEPpg inibiu a expansão de células Mac-1+ induzida por AFC no baço, porém não no peritônio. Esse resultado sugere um efeito inibidor do EEPpg sobre a migração celular para as articulações artríticas. Esses resultados contribuem para a validação do uso popular de P. polygalaeflorus contra doenças relacionadas a processos inflamatórios e imunes, sobretudo na artrite reumatóide, antes nunca demonstrado.

Efeitos da privação de sono paradoxal na nocicepção e ansiedade em ratos

A privação de sono paradoxal (PSP) provoca diversas alterações neuroquímicas e comportamentais relacionadas a mudanças nas funções de sistemas de neurotransmissores. São descritas na literatura respostas aumentadas a estímulos álgicos em animais privados desta fase de sono. Os métodos de PSP frequentemente utilizados têm sido associados à geração de ansiedade nos animais, e a hiperalgesia observada poderia, portanto, ser conseqüência aos estímulos ansiogênicos gerados pelo método. Neste trabalho tivemos como objetivos avaliar se o método utilizado para a PSP é ansiogênico e investigar o efeito dos fármacos ansiolítico, diazepam e analgésico, ácido acetilsalicílico sobre a ansiedade e resposta a estímulos térmicos álgicos em animais PSP. Ratos machos Wistar com 90 dias de vida foram privados de sono paradoxal por 96 horas, sendo a resposta álgica avaliada pelo tempo de retirada da pata traseira em ratos expostos à placa quente (46C). A avaliação do nível de ansiedade dos animais foi feita através do teste do campo aberto, através da relação entre a permanência nos quadrantes centrais e nos quadrantes periféricos, e também pelo teste do labirinto em cruz elevado, sendo quantificado o número de vezes que o animal entrava nos braços abertos do labirinto e o tempo gasto pelo animal nos mesmos braços. Os animais PSP apresentaram aumento no índice de locomoção em relação aos animais controles (+314,8%, p<0,05), aumento no número de entradas (+257,1%) e no tempo gasto nos braços abertos do labirinto em cruz elevado (+319,2%, p<0,05), e redução na latência de retirada da pata traseira da placa quente (-64,2%, p<0,05). O fármaco diazepam, não influenciou nas respostas apresentadas pelos animais PSP no teste de campo aberto e no teste da placa quente, mas influenciou nas repostas apresentadas por estes animais no teste do labirinto em cruz elevado tanto no tempo (+308, p<0,05), quanto no número de entradas (+316,6%, p<0,05). O fármaco ácido acetilsalicílico promoveu uma diminuição do índice de locomoção nos animais PSP submetidos ao teste de campo aberto que também foram administrados com o diazepam (-99,5%, p<0,05). No teste da placa quente o ácido acetilsalicílico não apresentou nenhuma influência na percepção de dor nos animais. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho indicam que o método de privação de sono paradoxal por período de 96 horas não induz ansiedade, e a redução farmacológica dos níveis de ansiedade não influencia na resposta álgica induzida pela privação de sono paradoxal.

Avaliação da S(+) cetamina no tratamento da dor neuropática e qualidade de vida em portadores de hanseníase

A dor neuropática é uma síndrome dolorosa crônica, que ocorre muito frequentemente em pacientes com hanseníase, de difícil tratamento. Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito terapêutico da S(+)-cetamina na dor neuropática e qualidade de vida em portadores de hanseníase atendidos em ambulatórios em São Luís - MA. Estudo experimental tipo ensaio clínico, prospectivo, aleatório, duplamente cego, controlado por placebo, com 34 pacientes distribuídos aleatoriamente em um dois grupos, cetamina e placebo por três meses e randomizados por numeração sequenciada. A dor foi avaliada por meio de escala analógica visual (EAV) nas seis visitas quinzenais (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 e 6), e pelo inventário DN4, na visita 1 e 6, com distribuição da S(+)-cetamina e o analgésico de resgate e avaliado os efeitos adversos em cada visita. Realizou-se a coleta de 15mL de sangue para exames de segurança na visita 1 e 6 e para quantificação de citocinas plasmáticas IL-1, IL-6 e TNFα, nas visitas 1, 2, 4 e 6. Foi também, avaliada a qualidade de vida por meio do questionário WHOQOL-Bref nas visitas 1 e 6. Os resultados demostraram predominância do sexo feminino, idade de 18 a 29 anos, pardos, solteiros, renda de 2 a 4 salários mínimos; e média de 7,782,21 anos de estudo. Na avaliação da dor pela EAV os dois grupos apresentaram uma redução dos escores médios de dor ao longo do tempo, e mostrou significância estatística p < 0,05. Entretanto não foi observada diferença estatística para os escores de dor entre os grupos e também, em relação ao uso do medicamento analgésico (codeína) de resgate. Houve redução significante nos escore de DN4 no grupo placebo em relação às avaliações iniciais e finais comparadas à cetamina, ainda os escores iniciais do DN4 foram significativamente menores no grupo placebo, nas avaliações de antes e depois do uso da S(+)-cetamina. Na avaliação da qualidade de vida nos domínios físico, psicológico, relações sociais e meio ambiente, não se observou diferença estatisticamente significante entre os grupos estudados. Os valores de IL-1, IL-6 e TNF-α, em quatro coletas do soro dos grupos cetamina e placebo não mostraram diferença estatisticamente significante tanto na avaliação intragrupo ao longo das visitas, como entre os grupos. Em relação aos efeitos adversos, houve um predomínio estatisticamente significante no grupo cetamina especialmente para tontura, alteração visual e outros efeitos. Conclui-se que a S(+)-cetamina por via oral na dose utilizada em pacientes com hanseníase e dor neuropática não se mostrou superior ao placebo em relação ao efeito analgésico e no impacto na qualidade de vida.

Efeitos do extrato de Chenopodium ambrosioides L. na cistite induzida pela ciclofosfamida

A cistite hemorrágica (CH) consiste em um processo inflamatório difuso de origem infecciosa ou não que resulta em um sangramento da mucosa vesical. As CH crônicas recorrentes induzidas pela ciclofosfamida (CYP) são um desafio na prática clínica pela alta morbidade e por vezes mortalidade dos pacientes. O tratamento da CH induzida pela ciclofosfamida consiste no uso de MESNA, disulfiram, N-acetil-cisteína, anti-inflamatório, oxigênio hiperbárico, hiper-hidratação e irrigação vesical, mas novas terapias têm sido investigadas, inclusive usando produtos naturais. A espécie vegetal Chenopodium ambrosioides L., conhecida popularmente como mastruz, mastruço e erva-de-Santa-Maria, tem sido relatada pela população como anti-inflamatório e analgésico. O presente estudo investigou os efeitos do extrato bruto hidroalcoólico de folhas de Chenopodium ambrosioides na CH induzida pela ciclofosfamida em ratos. Vinte e nove ratos receberam 150 mg/kg de CYP por via intraperitoneal (i.p.) para indução de CH e em seguida foram divididos em três grupos: controle negativo (CN), tratados com soro fisiológico a 0,9%; extrato bruto hidroalcoólico de Chenopodium ambrosioides (EBHCa), tratado com dose única de 50 mg/kg de extrato bruto hidroalcoólico de Chenopodium ambrosioides (EBH) e controle positivo (CP), tratados com dose única de 15 mg/kg de diclofenaco de potássio, todos por gavagem. Após 48 horas da indução da CH os animais foram sacrificados para retirada da bexiga, que foi preparada para análise histopatológica e imuno-histoquímica. O EBH foi capaz de diminuir o peso da bexiga e histologicamente a inflamação aguda e crônica da bexiga, a extensão do infiltrado inflamatório na parede vesical e a neoformação capilar do mesmo modo que o diclofenaco de potássio, quando comparados ao grupo CN. Observou-se ainda uma redução da expressão imuno-histoquímica de cicloxigenase-2 (COX-2) e do fator nuclear kappa B (NFB) na bexiga. No presente estudo o EBH das folhas de Chenopodium ambrosioides apresentou atividade anti-inflamatória, semelhante ao diclofenaco de potássio, no tratamento da CH induzida pela CYP.

Avaliação da percepção da dor no tratamento ortodôntico: ensaio clínico randomizado

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar através de questionários de escalas visuais analógicas a percepção da dor após a inserção do primeiro arco ortodôntico, comparando-se o efeito analgésico de ibuprofeno, acetaminofeno, placebo e goma de mascar. Este trabalho também partiu da hipótese de que ibuprofeno, acetaminofeno e gomas de mascar seriam mais eficazes que placebo no controle da dor de origem ortodôntica e que gomas de mascar poderiam ser uma alternativa ao uso de ibuprofeno e acetaminofeno no manejo da dor dentária de origem ortodôntica. Neste estudo, tomaram parte 41 pacientes da Clínica de Ortodontia da Faculdade de Odontologia da Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Os pacientes foram aleatoriamente distribuídos em cinco diferentes grupos: placebo, acetaminofeno 500 miligramas, ibuprofeno 400 miligramas, goma de mascar e controle. Todos os indivíduos tiveram bráquetes com slots .022" colados em seus dentes e molares bandados em uma das arcadas. Os grupos placebo, ibuprofeno e acetaminofeno foram orientados a tomar 01 cápsula do respectivo composto logo após a inserção do arco inicial de liga de níquel-titânio de dimensão .014 e, se a dor persistisse, a cada 6 horas por uma semana.O grupo goma de mascar foi orientado a mascar um tablete de goma por 5 minutos imediatamente após a inserção do arco inicial de liga de níquel-titânio de dimensão .014 e a cada 6 horas por 5 minutos durante uma semana, caso a dor persistisse. O grupo controle recebeu nenhum método de controle da dor. Os indivíduos foram orientados a marcar nas escalas visuais analógicas nas primeiras 24 horas, às 09:00, 13:00, 17:00, 21:00 a percepção de dor espontânea e durante a mastigação. Do terceiro até o vigésimo primeiro dia as marcações foram feitas somente em dois tempos às 09:00 e 21:00. Através da análise estatística descritiva, concluiu-se que o placebo foi mais eficiente que ibuprofeno, acetaminofeno e goma de mascar no controle da dor ortodôntica, tanto em dor espontânea quanto em dor durante a mastigação. O grupo goma de mascar foi tão eficiente quanto o acetaminofeno no controle da dor espontânea 24 horas após a inserção do arco inicial. Para alívio da dor durante a mastigação, a goma de mascar pode ser uma alternativa à atuação medicamentosa no controle da dor ortodôntica.

Uso seguro de opioides no paciente queimado: proposta de barreiras pela enfermagem

A tese desenvolvida neste estudo é que a depressão respiratória em pacientes queimados que utilizam opiódes como terapeutica farmacológica da dor, pode ser prevenida por meio de ações de enfermagem que identifiquem os fatores predisponentes para a depressão respiratória, que considerem na rotina de aprazamento da terapeutica farmacológica da dor, as características farmacológicas dos medicamentos, para evitar interações medicamentosas e que monitorem adequadamente o paciente queimado para identificar precocemente sinais de depressão respiratória. Para tanto, este estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver barreiras de segurança com foco em ações de enfermagem, para prevenção de depressão respiratória em pacientes queimados em uso de opióides. Trata-se de um estudo restrospectivo, em que foram analisados 272 prontuários de pacientes queimados internados em um Centro de Tratamento de Queimados (CTQ), de um hospital público federal de grande porte, no município do Rio de Janeiro. nos anos de 2011 a 2013. Dentre os 272 prontuários 42 atenderam os critérios de seleção da pesquisa, e destes, em 28,58% (n=12) foi identificada a ocorrência de depressão respiratória. Predominaram pacientes adultos jovens do sexo masculino. O óbito predominou no grupo com DR, assim como, queimaduras de 2 e 3 graus, e superfície corporal queimada com mediana de 50%. Os fatores predominantes para depressão respiratória foram insuficiencia renal, hipoalbuminemia e hipertensão arterial. Na terapia medicamentosa dos pacientes queimados, os analgésicos opióides são os mais utilizados, predominando o tramadol (45,49%) e a metadona (18,45%). Diazepam é o benzodiazepínico de escolha, entre os antidepressivos a imipramina é o mais utilizado, apesar de classificada como anticonvulsivantes a gabapentina, nos queimados é utilizada em dose analgésica. Tanto no grupo de pacientes com ou sem DR, os horários de adiministração de medicamentos que predominaram foram 22h e 06h. Foi evidenciado PIM em 66,6% dos pacientes estudados. A associação entre a ocorrência de PIM e a DR demonstrou-se positiva; os pacientes com que apresentaram PIM têm 2,5 vezes mais risco de apresentar DR. Os pares de medicamentos prevalentes e que apresentaram PIM no grupo com DR foram, metadona com diazepam (n=5), tramadol com fentanil (4), metadona com impramina e metadona com tramadol (n=3). No grupo sem DR foram metadona e tramadol (n=8), tramadol com fentanil (4), e metadona com diazepam (3). As vias oral e intravenosa predominaram nos pacientes com e sem DR, e não houve associação positiva entre a administração por essas vias e a oorrência de DR, constatando-se que a via de administração não é tão relevante para a DR. Nos pacientes com DR, 83,3% apresentaram PIM, principalmente nos horários 22h e 06h, horários próximos aos de ocorrência de DR. Espera-se que este estudo contribua para a segurança medicamentosa no uso de opióides, e na prevenção do eventos adverso grave como a depressão respiratória em pacientes queimados.