927 resultados para Plant-pathogen interaction
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Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a Gram-negative opportunistic pathogen. Several antibiotic resistant strains of P. aeruginosa are commonly found as secondary infection in immune-compromised patients leaving significant mortality and healthcare cost. Pseudomonas aeruginosa successfully avoids the process of phagocytosis, the first line of host defense, by secreting several toxic effectors. Effectors produced from P. aeruginosa Type III secretion system are critical molecules required to disrupt mammalian cell signaling and holds particular interest to the scientists studying host-pathogen interaction. Exoenzyme S (ExoS) is a bi-functional Type III effector that ADP-ribosylates several intracellular Ras (Rat sarcoma) and Rab (Response to abscisic acid) small GTPases in targeted host cells. The Rab5 protein acts as a rate limiting protein during phagocytosis by switching from a GDP- bound inactive form to a GTP-bound active form. Activation and inactivation of Rab5 protein is regulated by several Rab5-GAPs (GTPase Activating Proteins) and Rab5-GEFs (Rab5-Guanine nucleotide Exchange Factors). Some pathogenic bacteria have shown affinity for Rab proteins during infection and make their way inside the cell. This dissertation demonstrated that Rab5 plays a critical role during early steps of P. aeruginosa invasion in J774-Eclone macrophages. It was found that live, but not heat inactivated, P. aeruginosa inhibited phagocytosis that occurred in conjunction with down-regulation of Rab5 activity. Inactivation of Rab5 was dependent on ExoS ADP-ribosyltransferase activity, and more than one arginine sites in Rab5 are possible targets for ADP-ribosylation modification. However, the expression of Rin1, but not other Rab5GEFs (Rabex-5 and Rap6) reversed this down-regulation of Rab5 in vivo. Further studies revealed that the C-terminus of Rin1 carrying Rin1:Vps9 and Rin1:RA domains are required for optimal Rab5 activation in conjunction with active Ras. These observations demonstrate a novel mechanism of Rab5 targeting to phagosome via Rin1 during the phagocytosis of P. aeruginosa. The second part of this dissertation investigated antimicrobial activities of Dehydroleucodine (DhL), a secondary metabolite from Artemisia douglasiana, against P. aeruginosa growth and virulence. Populations of several P. aeruginosa strains were completely susceptible to DhL at a concentration between 0.48~0.96 mg/ml and treatment at a threshold concentration (0.12 mg/ml) inhibited growth and many virulent activities without damaging the integrity of the cell suggesting anti-Pseudomonas activity of DhL.
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Traditionally, ice-binding proteins (IBPs), also known as antifreeze proteins (AFPs), have been defined by two universal activities: ice recrystallization inhibition and thermal hysteresis. However, there remains the possibility IBPs have other complementary functions given the diversity found within this protein group. This thesis explores some of these in both natural and applied settings, in the hopes of furthering our understanding of this remarkable group of proteins. Plant IBPs could function as part of a defensive strategy against ice nucleators produced by certain pathogens. To assess this hypothesis, recombinant IBPs from perennial ryegrass and purple false brome were combined with the ice nucleation protein (INP) from the plant pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae. Strikingly, the plant proteins depressed the freezing point of the bacterial INP, while a fish AFP could not, nor did the INPs have any effect on IBP activity. Thus, the interaction between these two different proteins suggests a role in plant defensive strategies against pathogenic bacteria as another IBP function. In addition, the potential use of hyperactive insect IBPs in organ preservation was investigated. Current kidney preservation techniques involve storing the organ at 4 °C for a maximum of 24 h prior to transplantation. Extending this “safe” time would have profound effects on renal transplants, however, ischemic injury is prevalent when storage periods are prolonged. Experiments described here allowed subzero preservation for 72 h with the addition of a beetle IBP to CryoStasis® solution. Kidneys stored using the traditional technique for 24 h and the method developed here for 72 h showed similar levels of biomarker enzymes, underscoring the potential utility of insect IBPs for future transplant purposes. Finally, IBP function in the freeze-tolerant gall fly, Eurosta solidaginis, was examined. Larvae representing the mid-autumn stage displayed ice-binding activity, suggesting an IBP is being expressed, possibly as a protective measure against freezing damage when fall temperatures can unpredictably drop. IBP activity was also observed in the larvae’s host plant, Solidago spp. Mass spectrometry analysis of ice-affinity purified plant extracts provided three candidate pathogenesis-related proteins that could be responsible for the detected activity, further demonstrating additional functions of IBPs.
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Ink Disease is considered one of the most important causes of the decline of chestnut orchards. The break in yield of Castanea sativa Mill is caused by two species: Phytophthora cinnamomi and Phytophthora cambivora, being the first one the foremost pathogen of ink disease in Portugal. P. cinnamomi is one of the most aggressive and widespread plant pathogen with nearly 1,000 host species. This oomycete causes enormous economic losses and it is responsible for the decline of many plant species in Europe and worldwide. Up to now no efficient treatments are available to fight these pathogens. Because of the importance of chestnut at economical and ecological levels, especially in Portugal, it becomes essential to explore the molecular mechanisms that determine the interaction between Phytophthora species and host plants through the study of proteins GIP (glucanase inhibitor protein) and NPP1 (necrosis-inducing Phytophthora protein 1) produced by P. cinnamomi during the infection. The technique of RNA interference was used to knockdown the gip gene of P. cinnamomi. Transformants obtained with the silenced gene have been used to infect C. sativa, in order to determine the effect of gene silencing on the plant phenotype. To know more about the function of GIP and NPP1 involved in the mechanism of infection, the ORF’s of gip and npp1 genes have been cloned to the pTOR-eGFP vector for a future observation of P. cinnamomi transformants with fluorescent microscopy and determination of the subcellular localization. Moreover the prediction by bioinformatics tools indicates that both GIP and NPP1 proteins are secreted. The results allow to predict the secretory destination of both GIP and NPP1 proteins and confirm RNAi as a potential alternative biological tool in the control and management of P. cinnamomi. Keywords:
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In vivo small molecules as necessary intermediates are involved in numerous critical metabolic pathways and biological processes associated with many essential biological functions and events. There is growing evidence that MS-based metabolomics is emerging as a powerful tool to facilitate the discovery of functional small molecules that can better our understanding of development, infection, nutrition, disease, toxicity, drug therapeutics, gene modifications and host-pathogen interaction from metabolic perspectives. However, further progress must still be made in MS-based metabolomics because of the shortcomings in the current technologies and knowledge. This technique-driven review aims to explore the discovery of in vivo functional small molecules facilitated by MS-based metabolomics and to highlight the analytic capabilities and promising applications of this discovery strategy. Moreover, the biological significance of the discovery of in vivo functional small molecules with different biological contexts is also interrogated at a metabolic perspective.
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Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common sexually transmitted bacterial infection worldwide. The impact of this pathogen on human reproduction has intensified research efforts to better understand chlamydial infection and pathogenesis. Whilst there are animal models available that mimic the many aspects of human chlamydial infection, the mouse is regarded as the most practical and widely used of the models. Studies in mice have greatly contributed to our understanding of the host-pathogen interaction and provided an excellent medium for evaluating vaccines. Here we explore the advantages and disadvantages of all animal models of chlamydial genital tract infection, with a focus on the murine model and what we have learnt from it so far.
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Endemic stability is a widely used term in the epidemiology of ticks and tick-borne diseases. It is generally accepted to refer to a state of a host tick pathogen interaction in which there is a high level of challenge of calves by infected ticks, absence of clinical disease in calves despite infection, and a high level of immunity in adult cattle with consequent low incidence of clinical disease. Although endemic stability is a valid epidemiological concept, the modelling studies that underpinned subsequent studies on the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases were specific to a single host tick pathogen system, and values derived from these models should not be applied in other regions or host tick pathogen systems.
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Natural biological suppression of soil-borne diseases is a function of the activity and composition of soil microbial communities. Soil microbe and phytopathogen interactions can occur prior to crop sowing and/or in the rhizosphere, subsequently influencing both plant growth and productivity. Research on suppressive microbial communities has concentrated on bacteria although fungi can also influence soil-borne disease. Fungi were analyzed in co-located soils 'suppressive' or 'non-suppressive' for disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani AG 8 at two sites in South Australia using 454 pyrosequencing targeting the fungal 28S LSU rRNA gene. DNA was extracted from a minimum of 125 g of soil per replicate to reduce the micro-scale community variability, and from soil samples taken at sowing and from the rhizosphere at 7 weeks to cover the peak Rhizoctonia infection period. A total of ∼994,000 reads were classified into 917 genera covering 54% of the RDP Fungal Classifier database, a high diversity for an alkaline, low organic matter soil. Statistical analyses and community ordinations revealed significant differences in fungal community composition between suppressive and non-suppressive soil and between soil type/location. The majority of differences associated with suppressive soils were attributed to less than 40 genera including a number of endophytic species with plant pathogen suppression potentials and mycoparasites such as Xylaria spp. Non-suppressive soils were dominated by Alternaria , Gibberella and Penicillum. Pyrosequencing generated a detailed description of fungal community structure and identified candidate taxa that may influence pathogen-plant interactions in stable disease suppression. © 2014 Penton et al.
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The type III secretion system (T3SS) is an essential requirement for the virulence of many Gram-negative bacteria which infect plants, animals and men. Pathogens use the T3SS to deliver effector proteins from the bacterial cytoplasm to the eukaryotic host cells, where the effectors subvert host defenses. The best candidates for directing effector protein traffic are the bacterial type III-associated appendages, called needles or pili. In plant pathogenic bacteria, the best characterized example of a T3SS-associated appendage is the HrpA pilus of the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000. The components of the T3SS in plant pathogens are encoded by a cluster of hrp (hypersensitive reaction and pathogenicity) genes. Two major classes of T3SS-secreted proteins are: harpin proteins such as HrpZ which are exported into extracellular space, and avirulence (Avr) proteins such as AvrPto which are translocated directly to the plant cytoplasm. This study deals with the structural and functional characterization of the T3SS-associated HrpA pilus and the T3SS-secreted harpins. By insertional mutagenesis analysis of HrpA, we located the optimal epitope insertion site in the amino-terminus of HrpA, and revealed the potential application of the HrpA pilus as a carrier of antigenic determinants for vaccination. By pulse-expression of proteins combined with immuno-electron microscopy, we discovered the Hrp pilus assembly strategy as addition of HrpA subunits to the distal end of the growing pilus, and we showed for the first time that secretion of HrpZ occurs at the tip of the pilus. The pilus thus functions as a conduit delivering proteins to the extracellular milieu. By using phage-display and scanning-insertion mutagenesis methods we identified a conserved HrpZ-binding peptide and localized the peptide-binding site to the central domain of HrpZ. We also found that the HrpZ specifically interacts with a host bean protein. Taken together, the current results provide deeper insight into the molecular mechanism of T3SS-associated pilus assembly and effector protein translocation, which will be helpful for further studies on the pathogenic mechanisms of Gram-negative bacteria and for developing new strategies to prevent bacterial infection.
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In a complex multitrophic plant-animal interaction system in which there are direct and indirect interactions between species, comprehending the dynamics of these multiple partners is very important for an understanding of how the system is structured. We investigated the plant Ficus racemosa L. (Moraceae) and its community of obligatory mutualistic and parasitic fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) that develop within the fig inflorescence or syconium, as well as their interaction with opportunistic ants. We focused on temporal resource partitioning among members of the fig wasp community over the development cycle of the fig syconia during which wasp oviposition and development occur and we studied the activity rhythm of the ants associated with this community. We found that the seven members of the wasp community partitioned their oviposition across fig syconium development phenology and showed interspecific variation in activity across the day-night cycle. The wasps presented a distinct sequence in their arrival at fig syconia for oviposition, with the parasitoid wasps following the galling wasps. Although fig wasps are known to be largely diurnal, we documented night oviposition in several fig wasp species for the first time. Ant activity on the fig syconia was correlated with wasp activity and was dependent on whether the ants were predatory or trophobiont-tending species; only numbers of predatory ants increased during peak arrivals of the wasps.
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The pathogenesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is associated with its ability to survive inside the human host and the bacteria use a variety of mechanism to evade the host's defence. A clearer understanding of the host pathogen interaction is needed to follow the pathogenicity and virulence. Recent advances in the study of inter and intra-cellular communication in bacteria had prompted us to study the role of quorum sensing in bacterial survival and pathogenicity. The cell cell communication in bacteria (quorum sensing) is mediated through the exchange of small molecules called as autoinducers that allow bacteria to modulate their gene expression in response to change in cell-population density. It is a coordinated response that confers multicellularity to a bacterial population in response to stress from external environment. Quorum sensing molecules are the global regulators and regulate a wide range of physiological processes including biofilm formation, motility, cell differentiation, long-term survival and many others. Many bacterial pathogens require quorum sensing to produce the virulence factors in response to host pathogen interaction. Here, we summarize our current understanding on small molecule signalling and their role in the bacterial persistence. New discoveries in these areas have enriched our knowledge on intracellular signalling and their role in the long-term survival of mycobacteria under nutrient starvation.
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Tobacco streak virus (TSV), the type member of Ilarvirus genus, is a major plant pathogen. TSV purified from infected plants consists of a ss-RNA genome encapsidated in spheroidal particles with diameters of 27, 30 and 33 nm constructed from multiple copies of a single species of coat protein (CP) subunits. Apart from protecting the viral genome, CPs of ilarviruses play several key roles in the life cycle of these viruses. Unlike the related bromo and cucumoviruses, ilarvirus particles are labile and pleomorphic, which has posed difficulties in their crystallization and structure determination. In the current study, a truncated TSV-CP was crystallized in two distinct forms and their structures were determined at resolutions of 2.4 angstrom and 2.1 angstrom, respectively. The core of TSV CP was found to possess the canonical beta-barrel jelly roll tertiary structure observed in several other viruses. Dimers of CP with swapped C-terminal arms (C-arm) were observed in both the crystal forms. The C-arm was found to be flexible and is likely to be responsible for the polymorphic and pleomorphic nature of TSV capsids. Consistent with this observation, mutations in the hinge region of the C-arm that reduce the flexibility resulted in the formation of more uniform particles. TSV CP was found to be structurally similar to that of Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) accounting for similar mechanism of genome activation in alfamo and ilar viruses. This communication represents the first report on the structure of the CP from an ilarvirus. (C) 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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O Aspergillus fumigatus é o principal agente etiológico da aspergilose invasiva, uma infecção fúngica oportunista que acomete, principalmente, pacientes de Unidades Hematológicas, como aqueles com neutropenia profunda e prolongada. Após a filamentação este fungo angioinvasivo é capaz de ativar e causar danos em células endoteliais de veia umbilical humana (HUVEC) que passam a expressar um fenótipo pró-trombótico. A ativação destas células, dependente de contato célulacélula, é mediada por TNF-α e caracterizada pela expressão de moléculas próinflamatórias, como citocinas, quimiocinas e moléculas de adesão. Recentemente, nosso grupo comparou a ativação endotelial de HUVECs desafiadas com cepas selvagens e uma cepa mutante para o gene UGM1. Nestes experimentos a cepa mutante Δugm1, que apresenta um fenótipo de maior produção de galactosaminogalactana (GAG) na parede celular, mostrou um fenótipo hiperadesivo e uma capacidade maior de ativar células endoteliais. Entretanto, os receptores e as vias de sinalização envolvidos nesta ativação permanecem desconhecidos. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar as proteínas envolvidas nestes processos através do estudo das proteínas diferencialmente expressas nas HUVECs após a interação com A. fumigatus, usando a técnica proteômica 2D-DIGE. Brevemente, as HUVECs foram infectadas com tubos germinativos da cepa selvagem (AF293) e da cepa Δugm1 de A. fumigatus. Em seguida, as proteínas foram marcadas com diferentes fluorocromos e separadas por eletroforese bidimensional. A análise quantitativa foi realizada utilizando o software DeCyder. Foram identificadas por MS/MS cinco proteínas diferencialmente expressas, incluindo a galectina-1 e a anexina A2, ambas mais expressas após a interação, sendo a primeira ~25% mais expressa após a interação com a mutante Δugm1. Este trabalho propõe que a galectina-1 poderia ser o receptor endotelial para polímeros de galactose presentes na parede celular do A. fumigatus, e que a Anexina A2 poderia estar envolvida na sinalização intracelular em resposta a este patógeno. No entanto, experimentos complementares, em curso, são necessários para comprovar esta hipótese.
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兰科植物精巧的花部结构及其独特的传粉机制为自然选择理论和异花受粉优势学说提供了强有力的证据。开展兰科植物的传粉生态学研究对进一步探讨植物进化中的一些关键问题(如生殖隔离、物种形成、适应和繁育系统进化等)具有重要意义。本文通过对独花兰 (Changnienia amoena) 和扇脉杓兰 (Cypripedium japonicum) 两种兰科植物进行植物与传粉者之间关系、种内形态变异、花粉散布等方面的研究,探讨其适应进化方式、传粉系统的进化趋势,同时为开发适用的分子标记,在独花兰中初步摸索和探讨了微卫星标记的分离。主要研究结果如下: 1. 濒危植物独花兰的传粉生态学 在神农架2个地点进行了连续2年的野外观测和实验。结果表明,独花兰是一种自交亲和、需要昆虫传粉的欺骗性植物。在2个地点独花兰的传粉者种类不同,在龙门河三条熊蜂 (Bombus (Diversobombus) trifasciatus) 是主要传粉者,在关门山仿熊蜂 (B. (Tricornibombus) imitator) 是唯一的传粉者。尽管它们出现的丰度和觅食行为不同,但其传粉行为和携粉部位非常相同,因此,可以看作是一个功能群(functional group)。从种群水平上看,开花个体的分布式样不是显著的偏斜曲线图,传粉者的有效访问主要集中在开花的前、中期。由于没有花蜜,传粉者在花内停留的时间很短,花粉块输出和传粉发生在熊蜂劳而无获的访问、退出花时。自然条件下,独花兰的结实率很低,只有6%-12%,并呈现明显的年份和地点变化。传粉者限制是结实率低的主要原因。与同亚族近缘种布袋兰相比,分布于中国中部的独花兰受冰期的影响很小,其传粉环境相对稳定,在进化历史中,形成了一种稳定的传粉系统。本研究结果纠正了前人对独花兰繁殖方式的错误认识,并为其保护策略的制订提供了重要资料。 2. 独花兰种群大小、传粉者访问和花粉流 为了检验独花兰种群大小、空间格局与传粉者访问之间的关系,连续2年对10个独花兰种群的花粉块输出和输入进行了统计分析,同时对花粉块进行标记研究其散布式样。结果显示,花粉块输出比例与种群大小之间关系在2003年呈显著负相关,但在2004年这种负相关关系不显著。尽管独花兰的空间分布格局在不同种群不同,但传粉者的访问除了在有蜂巢的种群为聚集式访问外,其余种群内均为随机访问式样。花粉块的散布式样呈尖峰态分布,多数花粉块散布很短的距离,少数散布较远。花粉块的平均散布距离在龙门河为7.3 m,在关门山为10.6 m。由于各种群之间相隔很远,种群之间花粉块交流受到限制,很少有种群外的花粉块输入。花粉块传递只在种群内近缘个体中进行,有可能导致种内遗传或形态分化。 3. 独花兰种内形态变异及其适应意义 对庐山、新宁和神农架3个地点15个独花兰自然种群的形态变异进行了研究,探讨了形态多样性水平和地理变异式样及其可能的适应机制。结果表明,在物种水平上独花兰形态性状存在丰富的变异。单因素方差分析显示3个地区间多个形态性状存在极显著差异(P<0.01),UPGMA聚类分析也表明这3个地区分别形成明显不同的分支,说明3个地区种群植物形态已经出现分化。在神农架地区,龙门河和关门山两个地点间出现明显的形态分化,而这两个地点的传粉者在形体大小表现出显著差异。适合度与形态性状之间的相关性分析显示,独花兰种内形态分化是以传粉者为媒介的自然选择作用的结果。移栽实验显示,本地传粉者对本地和移栽种群花的访问表现出一定的选择性。 4. 扇脉杓兰的传粉生态学研究 与独花兰同域分布、花期不遇的扇脉杓兰是杓兰属的一个特殊类群,具有典型“Japonicum”型唇瓣类型。对神农架6个种群连续两年野外观测和实验结果表明,扇脉杓兰是一种自交亲和、需要昆虫传粉的欺骗性植物。在种群水平上开花个体的分布式样呈显著的偏斜曲线图,在短时间内迅速到达盛花期。扇脉杓兰的传粉者是三种熊蜂,其访问频次很低,访问时间很短,有效访问主要集中在开花的前、中期。自然结实率只有4.3%-8.5%,人工授粉实验证明,传粉者限制是结实率低的主要原因,且传粉者限制程度在花期不同阶段和不同地点存在差异。对欺骗性植物聚集生长、开花有利于吸引传粉者这一假说进行检验,结果显示,克隆群丛大小与传粉者有效访问(花粉块输出比例)呈弱负相关关系。聚集生长的结实率与分散生长的没有显著差异,说明繁殖成功与开花个体的密度无关。扇脉杓兰的花粉集结为未蜡质化的花粉块,是杓兰属中粘质花粉和蜡质花粉块的中间进化类型。传粉生态学和形态学证据显示C. acaule和扇脉杓兰是东亚-北美间断分布的姐妹种对。 5. 独花兰微卫星位点的分离 为了深入研究独花兰种群的基因流和交配系统,用Dynabeads和选择性杂交法分离微卫星位点、筛选引物。首先将基因组DNA用合适的内切酶消化为400-1000 bp大小的片段,然后用生物素标记的简单重复寡核苷酸序列做探针与其杂交,杂交复合物用抗生链霉素蛋白包裹的磁珠吸附,经过一系列洗脱、沉淀,得到富含重复片段的DNA,然后在进行克隆、测序,利用SSR两侧翼区设计引物,经过多态性分析可得到微卫星标记。结果显示,35个克隆序列中18个(51.4%)含有重复片段(SSRs),说明用Dynabeads富集效率明显高于传统方法。到目前为止所得引物共4对。这一实验方法的探索为以后分离杓兰属等兰科植物微卫星位点、进而进行群体遗传学研究奠定了一定的基础。
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植物生态学特性诸如植物的分布特征、与生境的关系、生物学特性、繁殖成功特点及其影响因素等方面的详细资料是研究珍稀植物种群结构和动态以及开展保育生物学研究的基础。 黄龙沟草本植物群落具有较为丰富的植物种类。在所调查样方中(N=662)共有维管植物124种,分属于37科91属,有54个中国特有种。其中兰科植物多达21属33种,中国特有种有12个,新种一个。如此众多的地生兰科植物聚集在面积不到1平方千米的沟内,而且部分兰科植物种类在沟内形成优势草本群落,这在中国地生兰的分布区域中是不多见的。大多数物种,包括兰科植物在内,出现的频率都较小,并且分布不均匀。种间关联分析和相关分析表明黄龙沟优势兰科植物可以分为两组。一组包括无苞杓兰、黄花杓兰、二叶根茎兰、广布小碟兰、少花鹤顶兰和西藏杓兰,主要分布在光线充足但又具有一定遮阴条件的环境中;另一组包括筒距兰、沼兰、珊瑚兰、小斑叶兰、布袋兰、小花舌唇兰和小叶对叶兰,它们主要分布于荫蔽的环境中。这些兰科植物在组内大多呈现显著的正相关关系,组间大多呈现显著的负相关关系,说明黄龙沟兰科植物在资源利用方式上可能产生了分化。 黄龙沟兰科植物主要分布在两种生境中,即钙化滩流地和一小片森林中。在这两种生境中微环境条件以及兰科植物的种类组成、数量特征和分布格局的差异都很大。钙化滩流地的兰科植物种类数目和每个样方中包含的兰科植物种类数目都比森林生境中的高。钙化滩流地中发现有30种兰科植物,六种最为常见的是无苞杓兰、黄花杓兰、西藏杓兰、广布小碟兰、二叶根茎兰和少花鹤顶兰,它们的密度与树木盖度呈负相关关系。森林生境中有21种兰科植物分布,其中筒距兰和斑叶兰出现最多,其密度与树木盖度呈正相关关系。光照强度可能对兰科植物的分布起到重要的决定作用。兰科植物彼此之间对繁殖成功以及植株间建立的相互促进作用以及土壤中高的钙含量很可能是形成黄龙沟兰科植物多样性的重要原因,而钙化滩流地中的溪流对建立和维持兰科植物生存所必须的稳定环境条件起到至关重要的作用,如果随意改变水流的方向或减少水流的流量,将给某些兰科植物带来灾难性的后果。 黄龙沟钙化滩流地中斑块的大小对物种数(含兰科植物)具有强烈的影响,即斑块越大,所包含的物种数量越多。物种-面积关系符合幂函数方程S=cAZ的规律。中等尺度的斑块(1-10 m2)包含的物种数(含兰科植物)的增长速度最快,而在斑块面积大于10 m2时,物种数增长速度最小。 少花鹤顶兰是多年生、多次结实的具有克隆能力的地生兰科植物,是中国特有种。黄龙沟少花鹤顶兰每个花序的平均花朵数为3(1-7)朵。叶和花的形态指标在年季间无显著变异。2005-2007年3年间的开花物候没有明显的差异,花期始于6月中旬,于7月底至8月初结束,持续约6-7周,80-90%的花在7月初的开花高峰期开放,属花集中开放模式。花寿命与是否授粉密切相关,成功授粉的花寿命比没有授粉的花寿命短。少花鹤顶兰是自交亲和的,但其结实完全依赖于两种熊蜂的传粉,不存在自动自花授粉和无融合生殖现象。柱头可授性和花粉活力可维持15天左右。繁殖成功率年季间的变化很大,并表现出逐年下降的趋势,花粉移走率为18-51%,自然结实率为10-36%。繁殖成功与开花物候之间的关系不显著,但与某一特定时刻的开花数量(密度)有关。生境对少花鹤顶兰的形态和繁殖成功率有显著的影响。在荫蔽生境中的个体比开阔地中的个体大,但繁殖成功率却低于开阔地的。花序密度(丛的大小)对少花鹤顶兰繁殖成功的影响比较复杂,不同大小的丛,对花粉移走率的影响格局和方式不同,而对结实率几乎没有影响。花序大小对繁殖成功率没有显著的影响。花位置对繁殖成功的影响在不同大小的丛中具有不同的格局,在最小的丛中,花位置对雄性和雌性繁殖成功的影响都很显著,但在最大丛中都不显著。边缘效应对少花鹤顶兰和广布小碟兰的繁殖成功有显著的影响,花粉移走率和结实率均随离栈道的距离增加而增加。在离栈道10米以内的植株受到的影响最为严重。这种影响可能是由边缘效应和在栈道上的游客共同作用下,对传粉者产生了干扰,导致传粉者的行为改变所引起的。如果这种边缘效应是一个普遍现象的话,那么在进行自然保护区设计时,应该对这种效应加以重视。
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鄂尔多斯高原是一个多层次、复杂的生态过渡带,具有复杂多样的环境条件、生态特点,因此也就具有复杂多样的植物与环境关系。本文从群落和景观两个尺度水平上研究鄂尔多斯高原植物或植被与环境关系及景观空间格局。利用鄂尔多斯高原野外植物群落样方调坦数据、微生境环境数据、气候数据,以典范对应分析(Canonical Correspondence Analysis, CCA)的方法分析了鄂尔多斯高原植物分布空间格局与环境要素的关系并对秋类环境要素对鄂尔多斯高原植物空间分布格局的贡献进行了定量分解;利用1:500 000 鄂尔多斯高原植被、土壤、土地利用、土地沙漠化类型等专题地图在GIS支持下分析了鄂尔多斯高原景观空间格局、并利用上述专题图数据加上鄂尔多斯高原气候数据库分析了土壤、土地利用、土地利用、土地沙漠化和气候等对鄂尔多斯高原植被空间分布格局的作用。通过分析,得到了以下主要结论: 1 在分析方法上、利用典范对应分析的方法,把植物分布的空间因素与环境因素分离的方法发展为植物分布空间格局不同类型影响因素作用的定量分离,提出了相应的概念模型和实现方法。 2 影响鄂尔多斯高原植物分布空间格局的主要微生境环境要素是基质类型、地下水位、覆沙厚度等,而影响鄂尔多斯高原分布空间格局的主要气候要素中,降水和干湿指标的作用大于温度和热量指标的作用。 3 通过对鄂尔多斯高原植物分布空间格局与环境关系的研究,以植物对微生境环境要素的反应为根据,把鄂尔多斯高原主要植物划分为4个大类群:梁地植物、沙地植物、草甸植物和耐盐植物。根据它们对气候要素的反应,把鄂尔多斯高原主要植物划分为典型草原植物、荒漠草原植物和草原化荒漠植物3大类。进一步,根据鄂尔多劳动保护高原植物与环境关系的研究,进行了鄂尔多斯高原植被功能型划分的尝试,得到了鄂尔多斯高原的12种主要植被功能型。 4 对鄂尔多斯高原植物分布的空间格局的影响环境因素的贡献作了定量地分解。分析结果显示:鄂尔多斯高原植物分布空间格局中有27.02%可由已知环境变量得到解释,其中21.56%与微生境环境要素相关,7.51%与气候要素的作用有关,而气候与微生境环境要素的耦合作用的份额为2.05%。根据植物生长是否直接受到地下水的影响,鄂尔多斯高原存在两大类型生态特点差异明显的生境类型:中性立地和隐域生境,对两大类型生境上影响植物空间分布格局的环境要素的作用也进行了定量分解。分析结果表明:对于植物生长不直接受地下水影响的中性立地,已知环境要素的作用可以解释植物空间分布格局总信息的29.36%,稍大于对总体上鄂尔多斯高原植物分布空间格局的解释,其中9.23%与气候要素相关,22.08%与微生境环境要素相关,而两种类型环境要素的耦合作用则占1.95%。对于植物生长直接受到地下水影响的隐域生境,所有已知环境要素对植物分布空间格局的贡献率为72.28%,其中气候要素的作用为30.31%,微生境环境要素的作用为49.08%,两类环境要素的耦合作用为7.11%。 5 描述景观空间格局的指数多种多样,这些能数在描述特定区域的景观空间格局时是有信息冗余的。本文对利用FRAGSTATS所获得的鄂尔多斯高原植被、土壤、土地利用、土地沙漠化等景观分量的20个景观指数实施了因子分析。通过因子分析,我们可以把描述鄂尔多斯高原景观空间格局的景观指数归并为以下8类:多样性指数、斑块多度指数、斑块类型丰富度指数、斑块面积指数、斑块形状指数、分形维数、空间配置指数和斑块面积变异指数。通过因子分析,还得到了这些景观指数对描述鄂尔多斯景观格局的共性特征:在描述鄂尔多斯高原景观空间格局时,作用最大的是多样性指数、斑块多度指数、面积加权平均斑块形状指数和面积加权平均分形维数,其次是斑块类型丰富度指数、平均分维指数、平均形状指数和斑块面积指数,而空间配置指数(扩散与毗连指数)和斑块面积变异指数的作用则比较微弱。 6 对鄂尔多斯高原景观指数的因子分析是非常有效和成功的。因子分析对鄂尔多斯高原植被、土壤、土地利用、土地沙漠化景观指数的分析分别得到了5-6个主要因子,可以表达原有20个景观指数所表达信息的91.1-96.0%,即可以反应鄂尔多斯高原景观空间格局的大部分信息。本文所进行的因子分析对因子进行了方差最大化(Varimax)正交旋转的处理,因子分析得到的每一个主要因子都有一个或几个与之相关性非常高的景观指数与之对应,因此,就可以用与因子分析所得主要因子相关性最高的景观指数代替该主要因子来表达鄂尔多斯高原的景观空间格局。另外还因为有些景观指数之间具有极高的相关系数,所以对因子分析所得到的景观指数可以进一步精减,最后利用因子分析成功地把原有20个景观指数减少到了11个。最后被选来描述鄂尔多斯高原景观格局的景观指数有下列11个:MSIEI(修正的Simpson均匀度指数)、AWMPFD(面积加权平均斑块分形维数)、AWMSI(面积加权平均形状指数)、NP(斑块数目)、PR(斑块类型丰富度)、MSI(平均形状指数)、MPFD(平均斑块分形维数)、MPS(平均斑块面积)、PSCV(斑块面积变异系数)、DLFD(双对数分形维数)和IJI(扩散与毗连指数)。 7 鄂尔多斯高原植被、土壤、土地利用在景观组成结构上具有一个共同特点,就是各种类型的面积差异极大,少数类型占有极大比重,而其余面积则很小。产生这一情形的原因主要与人为活动的强烈影响有关,表现在地带性的植被与土壤面积所占的比重不高,沙地、沙生植被与风沙土则占有很大比重。 8 以地带性植被和滩地隐域性植被表示的鄂尔多斯高原的原生植被仅占高原面积的不足30%,而以地带性土壤和滩地隐域性土壤表示的原生性土壤占鄂尔多斯高原总面积的近40%,说明土壤退化不如植被退化严重,或滞后于植被退化。 9 鄂尔多斯高原各景观指数的空间变化曲线,植被与土壤很相近,具有非常相似的格局;土地利用景观格局空间变化特征与植被、土壤等明显不同;土地沙漠化的景观格局空间变化曲线介植被曲线、土壤曲线与土地利用曲线之间,说明土地沙漠化不仅是一个受人为活动影响的过程,而且与自然过程密切相关。 10 鄂尔多斯高原景观格局的空间梯度变化表现出了东西向和南北向的梯度,但总体上以东西向的变化比较明显。 11 通过鄂尔多斯高原土壤类型、土地利用、土地沙漠化等景观要素、气候、空间要素与鄂尔多斯高原植被空间分布格局的CCA分析,探讨了它们之间的相互关系。以对鄂尔多斯高原植被组成数据的总方差解释的百分率为标准,土壤对鄂尔多斯植被分布的空间格局的作用最大,其方差贡献率可达44.28%,其次是土地利用与鄂尔多斯高原植被的关系也很密切,土地利用对鄂尔多斯高原植被空间分布格局的方差贡献率为22.45%,空间因素对鄂尔多斯高原植被空间分布格局的贡献率为17.51%,土地沙漠化对鄂尔多斯高原植被空间分布格局的贡献为15.65%,排在第四位;气候因素对鄂尔多斯高原植被空间格局的贡献率为11.95%,居第五位。 12 在气候要素对鄂尔多斯高原植被空间分布格局的作用中,降水与干湿指标的作用大于温度与热量指标的作用。这一点与利用野外调查样方的群落数据植物与气候关系的分析是完全一致的。CCA分析还表明鄂尔多斯高原植被空间格局的东西向变化大于南北向分异。 13 在群落和景观水平上,鄂尔多斯高原植物空间分布或植被格局的影响因素的作用具有相似的格局,即气候因子的作用明显地小于地质、土壤、水文等微生境环境要素(群落水平)或土壤(景观水平)的作用,并在这两个尺度上气候要素对植物空间分布或植被格局的定量解释份额上也是非常相近的,都仅有10%左右。气候因子对鄂尔多斯高原植物空间分布格局的这种弱的解释能力,从侧面说明了人为活动等非自然因素对鄂尔多斯高原植物空间分布格局的强烈作用。 14 在鄂尔多斯高原生态系统管理上,应协调人与自然的关系;加强鄂尔多斯高原的生物多样性保育,对于本区生态和经济对非常重要的滩地,应协调好对其开发利用与保护的关系;在鄂尔多斯高原土地沙漠化防治方面,应把调整人地关系与自然生态背景与条件相结合,如使用“三圈”模式等生态系统管理模式等。