Formation of DNA complexes in aqueous and organic solvents

From a physical-chemical point of view, it is challenging to form complexes with polyelectrolytes, consisting of only molecule of the largest component, i.e. the component with the highest number of charges. In this study, complexes are formed with DNA because of its potential applications as an artificial vector for gene delivery. The aim of this work is to prepare complexes in aqueous solutions as well as in organic solvents containing only one DNA molecule. For this purpose, the topology, equilibrium and conformation of complexes between a supercoiled DNA pUC19 (2686 base pairs) and spermine containing hydrophilic and/or hydrophobic moieties or a polylysine with a hydrophilic block are determined by means of dynamic (DLS) and static light scattering (SLS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. It is demonstrated that all of these complexes consisted of only one molecule of the polyanion. Only the polylysine-b-polyethylene glycol copolymer satisfied the conditions: 1) 100% neutralization of DNA charges and with a small excess of the cation (lower than 30%) and 2) form stable complexes at every charge ratio. rnDNA complex formation is also investigated in organic solvents. Precipitation is induced by neutralizing the charge of the supercoiled DNA pUC19 with the surfactants dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide (DTAB) and tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide (TTAB). After isolation and drying of the solids, the complexes are dissolved in organic solvents. DNA-TTA complexes are only soluble in methanol and DNA-DTA in DMF. The complexes again consisted of only one DNA molecule. The final topology of the complexes is different in methanol than in DMF. In the former case, DNA seems to be compacted whereas in the latter case, the DNA-DTA complexes seem to have an expanded conformation. Upon complex formation with polycations in organic solvents (with polyvilylpyridine brush (b-PVP) in methanol and with a protected polylysine in DMF), DNA aggregates and precipitates. rnDNA is linearized with an enzyme (SmaI) to investigate the influence of the initial topology of the polyanion on the final conformation of the complexes in organic solvents. Two main differences are evidenced: 1. Complexes in organic solvents formed with linear DNA have in general a more expanded conformation and a higher tendency to aggregate. 2. If a polycation, i.e. the b-PVP, is added to the linear DNA-TTA complexes in methanol, complexes with the polycation are formed at a higher charge ratio. In DMF, the addition of the same b-PVP and of b-PLL did not lead to the formation of complexes.rn

Synthese und Charakterisierung zylindrischer Poly(2-oxazolin)bürsten als Nanocarrier für Drug Delivery Systeme

Inspiriert durch natürlich vorkommende Peptide, sind Poly(2-oxazoline) vielversprechende Kandidaten für Anwendungen in Bereichen des kontrollierten Wirkstoff- bzw. Gentransportes, wie die moderne Biomedizin dies fordert. Da Polyoxazoline als strukturisomere Amide von natürlichen Polypeptiden aufgefasst werden können, zeigen diese synthetischen Polymere in direktem Vergleich erhebliche Vorteile etwa hinsichtlich Zytotoxizät und Effizienz, was wesentlich dazu beitragen kann, aktuelle Hürden biomedizinischer Fragestellungen hinsichtlich Transport und Targeting zu überwinden. Darüber hinaus sollten zylindrische Polymerbürsten aufgrund ihrer molekularen, architekturbedingten Formanisotropie und jüngsten Ergebnissen insbesondere zur formabhängigen Endozytose sehr aussichtsreiche Kandidaten für den Einsatz zum Wirkstofftransport sein.rnrnDie vorliegende Arbeit widmete sich deshalb der Synthese und Charakterisierung von biokompatiblen zylindrischen Poly(2-oxazolin)bürsten als potentielle Nanotransporter von Wirkstoffen, Biomolekülen oder genetischem Material. Als Monomer wurde zunächst 2-Isopropyloxazolin gewählt, da das Polymer eine Phasenübergangstemperatur von 37 °C besitzt, was für Konjugatsynthesen wie auch diverse biomedizinische Applikationen interessant sein kann. Durch terminierende Methacrylamid Funktionalisierung der lebenden kationischen Oxazolinpolymerisation bzw. nachfolgende Endgruppen Transferreaktionen sind Makromonomere im Bereich 1000-5000 g/mol zugänglich. Erstmals gelang es so 2-Oxazolin basierte, hochmolekulare zylindrische Bürsten mit Konturlängen im Bereich von 250 nm mittels „Grafting Through“ Technik in freier radikalischer Polymerisation herzustellen.rnrnAusgehend von der entwickelten Syntheseroute konnten so neben Homo- und Blockcopolymerbürsten von 2-Ethyl-2-oxazolin und 2-Isopropyl-2-oxazolin auch Bürstenmoleküle aus statistischen Copolymeren von 2-Ethyl-2-oxazolin und unsubstituiertem 2-Oxazolin hergestellt werden. Während letztere die Einführung kationischer Gruppen durch selektivere Abspaltmethoden der Formylreste erlauben und so etwa DNA/RNA Komplexierungen ermöglichen können, bietet andererseits der in dieser Arbeit erstmalig demonstrierte Einsatz Azid-funktionalisierter Initiatoren zur kationischen Oxazolinpolymerisation unter Beibehaltung aller anderen sonstigen Reaktionsschritte auch die Möglichkeit der Synthese Azid-Endgruppen-funktionalisierter Makromonomere. Die „Grafting Through“ Methodik der freien radikalischen Makromonomer Polymerisation ist selbst bei diesen funktionalisierten Systemen von großem Vorteil, erlaubt sie auch hier den Zugang zu hochmolekularen Substraten mit einem Pfropfungs- bzw. Funktionalisierungsgrad von 100 %, da jede Seitenkette dieser zylindrischen Bürsten die aussenliegende, und damit sterisch leichter zugängliche funktionale Gruppe trägt. Dabei gelang es die Syntheseroute so zu gestalten, dass es möglich war alle vorgestellten Polymerbürsten mittels statischer und dynamischer Lichtstreuung hinsichtlich absoluter Molmasse und molekularer Dimension zu charakterisieren.rnIn weitereren Reaktionen konnten dann reaktive Fluoreszenzfarbstoffe mit Hilfe kupferfreier 1,3 dipolarerer Addition (kupferfreie „Click-Chemie“) an die Azid-funktionalisierten Polymerbürsten angebunden werden, so dass eine wesentliche Voraussetzung für die Detektion in in vivo und in vitro Experimenten erfüllt werden kann. Darüber hinaus gelingt die quantitative polymeranaloge Umsetzung der Azid- zu Aminogruppen durch eine polymeranalog geführte Reduktion nach Staudinger; damit können an diesen Systemen auch etablierte Konjugationstechniken an Aminogruppen durchgeführt werden. Zudem erlauben die Aminogruppen-haltigen Polymerbürsten durch Protonierung schon bei physiologischem pH die Komplexierung von DNA oder RNA. rnrnErste Lichtstreumessungen in Blutserum zeigen im Falle der kationischen Aminogruppen tragenden Polymerbürsten zwar Aggregation, was aber durch entsprechende Umsetzung nach Konjugation wahrscheinlich unterdrückt werden kann, zeigen doch die entsprechenden Precursorpolymerbürsten mit Azidgruppen in Serum keinerlei Aggregation.rnrnZellaufnahmestudien in dendritische Zellen zeigen nur im Falle einer Azid-funktionalisierten Poly(2-isopropyl-2-oxazolin)bürste eine unspezifische Aufnahme. Die hydrophileren Poly(2-oxazolin)bürsten weise keine unspezifische Aufnahme auf, was eine wichtige Anfoderung für die Verwendung als Polymercarrier in der Krebsimmuntherapie ist.rn

In vivo electroporation mediated gene delivery to the beating heart

Gene therapy may represent a promising alternative strategy for cardiac muscle regeneration. In vivo electroporation, a physical method of gene transfer, has recently evolved as an efficient method for gene transfer. In the current study, we investigated the efficiency and safety of a protocol involving in vivo electroporation for gene transfer to the beating heart. Adult male rats were anesthetised and the heart exposed through a left thoracotomy. Naked plasmid DNA was injected retrograde into the transiently occluded coronary sinus before the electric pulses were applied. Animals were sacrificed at specific time points and gene expression was detected. Results were compared to the group of animals where no electric pulses were applied. No post-procedure arrhythmia was observed. Left ventricular function was temporarily altered only in the group were high pulses were applied; CK-MB (Creatine kinase) and TNT (Troponin T) were also altered only in this group. Histology showed no signs of toxicity. Gene expression was highest at day one. Our results provide evidence that in vivo electroporation with an optimized protocol is a safe and effective tool for nonviral gene delivery to the beating heart. This method may be promising for clinical settings especially for perioperative gene delivery.

[Search for Neospora caninum DNA in bull semen using PCR ]

Neospora caninum represents one of the most frequent abortifaciant organisms worldwide. The parasite is diaplacentally transmitted from the pregnant cow to the fetus, where it normally leads to the delivery of a healthy, however persistently infected calf. Abortion thus is a relative rare event. The transmission of bovine neosporosis occurs in more than 90% of the cases vertically due to the endogenous reactivation of a persistently infected mother. Exogenous infections are therefore responsible for less than 10% of the cases.The question arises about which infection sources may be relevant in this context. In Switzerland, the role of dogs as definitive hosts has been shown to be of low significance in that respect. Recently, discussion focused on the potential of infectious bull semen following natural or artificial insemination. Thus, a few years ago a report documented the detectability of N. caninum-DNA in the semen of naturally infected bulls by nested-PCR. As a consequence, we decided to gain own experience by investigating 5 separate semen specimens per animal, originating from 20 N. caninum-seropositive bulls used for artificial insemination in Switzerland. All probes turned out to be negative by nested PCR. Based upon our laboratory experiences, the potential bull semen-associated Neospora-problem seems not to affect the Swiss bull population, thus there is no evidence to include further respective means of control.

Antimicrobial therapy using a local drug delivery system (Arestin) in the treatment of peri-implantitis. I: Microbiological outcomes

OBJECTIVES: To assess the microbiological outcome of local administration of minocycline hydrochloride microspheres 1 mg (Arestin) in cases with peri-implantitis and with a follow-up period of 12 months. MATERIAL AND METHODS: After debridement, and local administration of chlorhexidine gel, peri-implantitis cases were treated with local administration of minocycline microspheres (Arestin). The DNA-DNA checkerboard hybridization method was used to detect bacterial presence during the first 360 days of therapy. RESULTS: At Day 10, lower bacterial loads for 6/40 individual bacteria including Actinomyces gerensceriae (P<0.1), Actinomyces israelii (P<0.01), Actinomyces naeslundi type 1 (P<0.01) and type 2 (P<0.03), Actinomyces odontolyticus (P<0.01), Porphyromonas gingivalis (P<0.01) and Treponema socranskii (P<0.01) were found. At Day 360 only the levels of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans were lower than at baseline (mean difference: 1x10(5); SE difference: 0.34x10(5), 95% CI: 0.2x10(5) to 1.2x10(5); P<0.03). Six implants were lost between Days 90 and 270. The microbiota was successfully controlled in 48%, and with definitive failures (implant loss and major increase in bacterial levels) in 32% of subjects. CONCLUSIONS: At study endpoint, the impact of Arestin on A. actinomycetemcomitans was greater than the impact on other pathogens. Up to Day 180 reductions in levels of Tannerella forsythia, P. gingivalis, and Treponema denticola were also found. Failures in treatment could not be associated with the presence of specific pathogens or by the total bacterial load at baseline. Statistical power analysis suggested that a case control study would require approximately 200 subjects.

The Molecular Crosstalk between the MET Receptor Tyrosine Kinase and the DNA Damage Response - Biological and Clinical Aspects

Radiation therapy remains an imperative treatment modality for numerous malignancies. Enduring significant technical achievements both on the levels of treatment planning and radiation delivery have led to improvements in local control of tumor growth and reduction in healthy tissue toxicity. Nevertheless, resistance mechanisms, which presumably also involve activation of DNA damage response signaling pathways that eventually may account for loco-regional relapse and consequent tumor progression, still remain a critical problem. Accumulating data suggest that signaling via growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases, which are aberrantly expressed in many tumors, may interfere with the cytotoxic impact of ionizing radiation via the direct activation of the DNA damage response, leading eventually to so-called tumor radioresistance. The aim of this review is to overview the current known data that support a molecular crosstalk between the hepatocyte growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase MET and the DNA damage response. Apart of extending well established concepts over MET biology beyond its function as a growth factor receptor, these observations directly relate to the role of its aberrant activity in resistance to DNA damaging agents, such as ionizing radiation, which are routinely used in cancer therapy and advocate tumor sensitization towards DNA damaging agents in combination with MET targeting.

Nonviral Gene Delivery of Growth and Differentiation Factor 5 to Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells Injected into a 3D Bovine Intervertebral Disc Organ Culture System

Intervertebral disc (IVD) cell therapy with unconditioned 2D expanded mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) is a promising concept yet challenging to realize. Differentiation of MSCs by nonviral gene delivery of growth and differentiation factor 5 (GDF5) by electroporation mediated gene transfer could be an excellent source for cell transplantation. Human MSCs were harvested from bone marrow aspirate and GDF5 gene transfer was achieved by in vitro electroporation. Transfected cells were cultured as monolayers and as 3D cultures in 1.2% alginate bead culture. MSC expressed GDF5 efficiently for up to 21 days. The combination of GDF5 gene transfer and 3D culture in alginate showed an upregulation of aggrecan and SOX9, two markers for chondrogenesis, and KRT19 as a marker for discogenesis compared to untransfected cells. The cells encapsulated in alginate produced more proteoglycans expressed in GAG/DNA ratio. Furthermore, GDF5 transfected MCS injected into an IVD papain degeneration organ culture model showed a partial recovery of the GAG/DNA ratio after 7 days. In this study we demonstrate the potential of GDF5 transfected MSC as a promising approach for clinical translation for disc regeneration.

Water-soluble fullerene (C60) derivatives as nonviral gene-delivery vectors.

A new class of water-soluble C60 transfecting agents has been prepared using Hirsch-Bingel chemistry and assessed for their ability to act as gene-delivery vectors in vitro. In an effort to elucidate the relationship between the hydrophobicity of the fullerene core, the hydrophilicity of the water-solubilizing groups, and the overall charge state of the C60 vectors in gene delivery and expression, several different C60 derivatives were synthesized to yield either positively charged, negatively charged, or neutral chemical functionalities under physiological conditions. These fullerene derivatives were then tested for their ability to transfect cells grown in culture with DNA carrying the green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene. Statistically significant expression of GFP was observed for all forms of the C60 derivatives when used as DNA vectors and compared to the ability of naked DNA alone to transfect cells. However, efficient in vitro transfection was only achieved with the two positively charged C60 derivatives, namely, an octa-amino derivatized C60 and a dodeca-amino derivatized C60 vector. All C60 vectors showed an increase in toxicity in a dose-dependent manner. Increased levels of cellular toxicity were observed for positively charged C60 vectors relative to the negatively charged and neutral vectors. Structural analyses using dynamic light scattering and optical microscopy offered further insights into possible correlations between the various derivatized C60 compounds, the C60 vector/DNA complexes, their physical attributes (aggregation, charge) and their transfection efficiencies. Recently, similar Gd@C60-based compounds have demonstrated potential as advanced contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Thus, the successful demonstration of intracellular DNA uptake, intracellular transport, and gene expression from DNA using C60 vectors suggests the possibility of developing analogous Gd@C60-based vectors to serve simultaneously as both therapeutic and diagnostic agents.

Functional correction in mouse models of muscular dystrophy using exon-skipping tricyclo-DNA oligomers

Antisense oligonucleotides (AONs) hold promise for therapeutic correction of many genetic diseases via exon skipping, and the first AON-based drugs have entered clinical trials for neuromuscular disorders1, 2. However, despite advances in AON chemistry and design, systemic use of AONs is limited because of poor tissue uptake, and recent clinical reports confirm that sufficient therapeutic efficacy has not yet been achieved. Here we present a new class of AONs made of tricyclo-DNA (tcDNA), which displays unique pharmacological properties and unprecedented uptake by many tissues after systemic administration. We demonstrate these properties in two mouse models of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a neurogenetic disease typically caused by frame-shifting deletions or nonsense mutations in the gene encoding dystrophin3, 4 and characterized by progressive muscle weakness, cardiomyopathy, respiratory failure5 and neurocognitive impairment6. Although current naked AONs do not enter the heart or cross the blood-brain barrier to any substantial extent, we show that systemic delivery of tcDNA-AONs promotes a high degree of rescue of dystrophin expression in skeletal muscles, the heart and, to a lesser extent, the brain. Our results demonstrate for the first time a physiological improvement of cardio-respiratory functions and a correction of behavioral features in DMD model mice. This makes tcDNA-AON chemistry particularly attractive as a potential future therapy for patients with DMD and other neuromuscular disorders or with other diseases that are eligible for exon-skipping approaches requiring whole-body treatment.

Antisense properties of tricyclo-DNA.

Tricyclo (tc)-DNA belongs to the class of conformationally constrained DNA analogs that show enhanced binding properties to DNA and RNA. We prepared tc-oligonucleotides up to 17 nt in length, and evaluated their binding efficiency and selectivity towards complementary RNA, their biological stability in serum, their RNase H inducing potential and their antisense activity in a cellular assay. Relative to RNA or 2'-O-Me-phosphorothioate (PS)-RNA, fully modified tc-oligodeoxynucleotides, 10-17 nt in length, show enhanced selectivity and enhanced thermal stability by approximately 1 degrees C/modification in binding to RNA targets. Tricyclodeoxyoligonucleotides are completely stable in heat-deactivated fetal calf serum at 37 degree C. Moreover, tc-DNA-RNA duplexes are not substrates for RNase H. To test for antisense effects in vivo, we used HeLa cell lines stably expressing the human beta-globin gene with two different point mutations in the second intron. These mutations lead to the inclusion of an aberrant exon in beta-globin mRNA. Lipofectamine-mediated delivery of a 17mer tc-oligodeoxynucleotide complementary to the 3'-cryptic splice site results in correction of aberrant splicing already at nanomolar concentrations with up to 100-fold enhanced efficiency relative to a 2'-O-Me-PS-RNA oligonucleotide of the same length and sequence. In contrast to 2'-O-Me-PS-RNA, tc-DNA shows antisense activity even in the absence of lipofectamine, albeit only at much higher oligonucleotide concentrations.

NonViral Gene Delivery of Growth and Differentiation Factor 6 (GDF6) to whole bovine Intervertebral Disc

Question: Low back pain is an increasing global health problem, which is associated with intervertebral disc (IVD) damage and de- generation. Major changes occur in the nucleus pulposus (NP), with the degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) [1]. Further studies showed that growth factors from the transforming growth factor (TGF) and bone morphogenic proteins (BMP) family may induce chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) [2]. Focusing on non-viral gene therapies and their possible translation into the clinics, we investigated if GDF6 (syn. BMP13 or CDMP2) can induce regeneration of degraded NP. We hypothesized that IVD transfected with plasmid over-expressing GDF6 also up-regulates other NP- and chondrogenic cell markers and enhances ECM deposition. Methods: Bovine IVD cells were isolated by pronase/collagenase II overnight digestion. After monolayer expansion up to passage 3, cells were transfected with the plasmid pGDF6 (RG211366, Origene, SF) or with green fluorescence protein (GFP) control using the NeonÒ transfection system (Invitrogen, Basel), both equipped with a Cy- tomegalovirus (CMV) promotor to induce over-expression. We tested a range of yet unpublished parameters for each of the primary disc cells to optimize efficiency. To test a non-viral gene therapy applied directly to 3D whole organ culture, bovine IVDs were harvested from fresh tails obtained from the abattoir within 5 h post-mortem [3]. Discs were then pre-incubated for 24 h in high glucose Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium and 5 % fetal calf serum. Each disc was transfected by injection of 5 lg of plasmid GDF6 (Origene, RG211366) into the center by 25G needle and using Hamilton sy- ringe. Electroporation was performed using 2-needle array electrode or tweezertrodes; 8 pulses at 200mv/cm with an interval of 10 ms were applied using ECM830 Square Wave Electroporation System (Harvard Apparatus, MA) (Fig. 1). After transfection discs were cultured for 72 h to allow expression of GFP or GDF6. Discs were then fixed, cryosectioned and analysed by immunofluorescence against GDF6. Results: We successfully transfected bovine NP and AF cells in monolayer culture with the two plasmids using a 1,400 V, 20 ms and 2 pulses with a *25 % efficiency using 0.15 M cells and 3 lg DNA (Fig. 1). Organ IVD culture transfection revealed GFP6 positive staining in the centre of the disc using 2-needle array electrode. Results from tweezertrodes did not show any GFP posi- tive cells. Conclusions: We identified novel parameters to successfully transfect primary bovine IVD cells. For transfection of whole IVD explants electroporation parameters need to be further optimized. Acknowledgments: This study was supported by the Lindenhof Foundation ‘‘Forschung und Lehre’’ (Project no. 13-02-F). References 1. Roughly PJ (2004) Spine (Phila) 29:2691–2699 2. 3. Clarke LE, McConell JC, Sherratt MJ, Derby B, Richardson SM, Hoyland JA (2014) Arthritis Res Ther 16:R67 Chan SC, Gantenbein-Ritter B (2012) J Vis Exp 60(60):e3490

DNA methylation and adaptive response in forest tree species

Progressive increase of temperatures as well as longer seasonal drought periods revealed by climate studies correspond to fast environmental changes that forest species face with their actual genetic background. Natural selective processes cannot develop an adaptive response within this time frame. Thus the capability of forest tree species to adapt to the new environments will depend on their genetic background, but also rely on their phenotypic plasticity. Several reports have shown the involvement of epigenetic modifiers as the basis of the phenotypic plasticity, and in particular to the adaptation to abiotic stresses. DNA methylation (methylation of cytosine residues)is one the most important epigenetic modification in eukaryotes. Itis involved in specific biological processes such as gene transcription regulation, gene silencing, mobile element control or genome imprinting.Therefore, there is a great interest in analyzing cytosine methylation levels and distribution within the genome

Short-term correction of factor VIII deficiency in a murine model of hemophilia A after delivery of adenovirus murine factor VIII in utero

Development of in utero gene transfer approaches may provide therapies for genetic disorders with perinatal morbidity. In hemophilia A, prenatal and postnatal bleeding may be catastrophic, and modest increments in factor VIII (FVIII) activity are therapeutic. We performed transuterine i.p. gene transfer at day 15 of gestation in a murine model of hemophilia A. Normal, carrier (XHX), and FVIII-deficient (XHY and XHXH) fetuses injected with adenoviral vectors carrying luciferase or β-galactosidase reporter genes showed high-level gene expression with 91% fetal survival. The live-born rates of normal and FVIII-deficient animals injected in utero with adenovirus murine FVIII (3.3 × 105 plaque-forming units) was 87%. FVIII activity in plasma was 50.7 ± 10.5% of normal levels at day 2 of life, 7.2 ± 2.2% by day 15 of life, and no longer detectable at day 21 of life in hemophilic animals. Injection of higher doses of murine FVIII adenovirus at embryonic day 15 produced supranormal levels of FVIII activity in the neonatal period. PCR analysis identified viral genomes primarily in the liver, intestine, and spleen, although adenoviral DNA was detected in distal tissues when higher doses of adenovirus were administered. These studies show that transuterine i.p. injection of adenoviral vectors produces therapeutic levels of circulating FVIII throughout the neonatal period. The future development of efficient and persisting vectors that produce long-term gene expression may allow for in utero correction of genetic diseases originating in the fetal liver, hematopoietic stem cells, as well as other tissues.

Virus-sized self-assembling lamellar complexes between plasmid DNA and cationic micelles promote gene transfer

Gene therapy is based on the vectorization of genes to target cells and their subsequent expression. Cationic amphiphile-mediated delivery of plasmid DNA is the nonviral gene transfer method most often used. We examined the supramolecular structure of lipopolyamine/plasmid DNA complexes under various condensing conditions. Plasmid DNA complexation with lipopolyamine micelles whose mean diameter was 5 nm revealed three domains, depending on the lipopolyamine/plasmid DNA ratio. These domains respectively corresponded to negatively, neutrally, and positively charged complexes. Transmission electron microscopy and x-ray scattering experiments on complexes originating from these three domains showed that although their morphology depends on the lipopolyamine/plasmid DNA ratio, their particle structure consists of ordered domains characterized by even spacing of 80 Å, irrespective of the lipid/DNA ratio. The most active lipopolyamine/DNA complexes for gene transfer were positively charged. They were characterized by fully condensed DNA inside spherical particles (diameter: 50 nm) sandwiched between lipid bilayers. These results show that supercoiled plasmid DNA is able to transform lipopolyamine micelles into a supramolecular organization characterized by ordered lamellar domains.

In vivo gene delivery to the liver using reconstituted chylomicron remnants as a novel nonviral vector

Lipoproteins are emulsion particles that consist of lipids and apolipoproteins. Their natural function is to transport lipids and/or cholesterol to different tissues. We have taken advantage of the hydrophobic interior of these natural emulsions to solubilize DNA. Negatively charged DNA was first complexed with cationic lipids containing a quaternary amine head group. The resulting hydrophobic complex was extracted by chloroform and then incorporated into reconstituted chylomicron remnant particles (≈100 nm in diameter) with an efficiency ≈65%. When injected into the portal vein of mice, there were ≈5 ng of a transgene product (luciferase) produced per mg of liver protein per 100 μg injected DNA. This level of transgene expression was ≈100-fold higher than that of mice injected with naked DNA. However, such a high expression was not found after tail vein injection. Histochemical examination revealed that a large number of parenchymal cells and other types of cells in the liver expressed the transgene. Gene expression in the liver increased with increasing injected dose, and was nearly saturated with 50 μg DNA. At this dose, the expression was kept at high level in the liver for 2 days and then gradually reduced and almost disappeared by 7 days. However, by additional injection at day 7, gene expression in the liver was completely restored. By injection of plasmid DNA encoding human α1-antitrypsin, significant concentrations of hAAT were detected in the serum of injected animals. This is the first nonviral vector that resembles a natural lipoprotein carrier.