A point mutation in the γ2 subunit of γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors results in altered benzodiazepine binding site specificity

Benzodiazepines allosterically modulate γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) evoked chloride currents of γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors. Coexpression of either rat γ2 or γ3, in combination with α1 and β2 subunits, results both in receptors displaying high [3H]Ro 15-1788 affinity. However, receptors containing a γ3 subunit display a 178-fold reduced affinity to zolpidem as compared with γ2-containing receptors. Eight chimeras between γ2 and γ3 were constructed followed by nine different point mutations in γ2, each to the homologous amino acid residue found in γ3. Chimeric or mutant γ subunits were coexpressed with α1 and β2 in human embryonic kidney 293 cells to localize amino acid residues responsible for the reduced zolpidem affinity. Substitution of a methionine-to-leucine at position 130 of γ2 (γ2M130L) resulted in a 51-fold reduction in zolpidem affinity whereas the affinity to [3H]Ro 15-1788 remained unchanged. The affinity for diazepam was only decreased by about 2-fold. The same mutation resulted in a 9-fold increase in Cl 218872 affinity. A second mutation (γ2M57I) was found to reduce zolpidem affinity by about 4-fold. Wild-type and γ2M130L-containing receptors were functionally expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Upon mutation allosteric coupling between agonist and modulatory sites is preserved. Dose–response curves for zolpidem and for diazepam showed that the zolpidem but not the diazepam apparent affinity is drastically reduced. The apparent GABA affinity is not significantly affected by the γ2M130L mutation. The identified amino acid residues may define part of the benzodiazepine binding pocket of GABAA receptors. As the modulatory site in the GABAA receptor is homologous to the GABA site, and to all agonist sites of related receptors, γ2M130 may either point to a homologous region important for agonist binding in all receptors or define a new region not underlying this principle.

The protein product of the het-s heterokaryon incompatibility gene of the fungus Podospora anserina behaves as a prion analog

The het-s locus of Podospora anserina is a heterokaryon incompatibility locus. The coexpression of the antagonistic het-s and het-S alleles triggers a lethal reaction that prevents the formation of viable heterokaryons. Strains that contain the het-s allele can display two different phenotypes, [Het-s] or [Het-s*], according to their reactivity in incompatibility. The detection in these phenotypically distinct strains of a protein expressed from the het-s gene indicates that the difference in reactivity depends on a posttranslational difference between two forms of the polypeptide encoded by the het-s gene. This posttranslational modification does not affect the electrophoretic mobility of the protein in SDS/PAGE. Several results suggest a similarity of behavior between the protein encoded by the het-s gene and prions. The [Het-s] character can propagate in [Het-s*] strains as an infectious agent, producing a [Het-s*] → [Het-s] transition, independently of protein synthesis. Expression of the [Het-s] character requires a functional het-s gene. The protein present in [Het-s] strains is more resistant to proteinase K than that present in [Het-s*] mycelium. Furthermore, overexpression of the het-s gene increases the frequency of the transition from [Het-s*] to [Het-s]. We propose that this transition is the consequence of a self-propagating conformational modification of the protein mediated by the formation of complexes between the two different forms of the polypeptide.

Modulation of potassium channel function by methionine oxidation and reduction

Oxidation of amino acid residues in proteins can be caused by a variety of oxidizing agents normally produced by cells. The oxidation of methionine in proteins to methionine sulfoxide is implicated in aging as well as in pathological conditions, and it is a reversible reaction mediated by a ubiquitous enzyme, peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase. The reversibility of methionine oxidation suggests that it could act as a cellular regulatory mechanism although no such in vivo activity has been demonstrated. We show here that oxidation of a methionine residue in a voltage-dependent potassium channel modulates its inactivation. When this methionine residue is oxidized to methionine sulfoxide, the inactivation is disrupted, and it is reversed by coexpression with peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase. The results suggest that oxidation and reduction of methionine could play a dynamic role in the cellular signal transduction process in a variety of systems.

RGS proteins reconstitute the rapid gating kinetics of Gβγ-activated inwardly rectifying K+ channels

G protein-gated inward rectifier K+ (GIRK) channels mediate hyperpolarizing postsynaptic potentials in the nervous system and in the heart during activation of Gα(i/o)-coupled receptors. In neurons and cardiac atrial cells the time course for receptor-mediated GIRK current deactivation is 20–40 times faster than that observed in heterologous systems expressing cloned receptors and GIRK channels, suggesting that an additional component(s) is required to confer the rapid kinetic properties of the native transduction pathway. We report here that heterologous expression of “regulators of G protein signaling” (RGS proteins), along with cloned G protein-coupled receptors and GIRK channels, reconstitutes the temporal properties of the native receptor → GIRK signal transduction pathway. GIRK current waveforms evoked by agonist activation of muscarinic m2 receptors or serotonin 1A receptors were dramatically accelerated by coexpression of either RGS1, RGS3, or RGS4, but not RGS2. For the brain-expressed RGS4 isoform, neither the current amplitude nor the steady-state agonist dose-response relationship was significantly affected by RGS expression, although the agonist-independent “basal” GIRK current was suppressed by ≈40%. Because GIRK activation and deactivation kinetics are the limiting rates for the onset and termination of “slow” postsynaptic inhibitory currents in neurons and atrial cells, RGS proteins may play crucial roles in the timing of information transfer within the brain and to peripheral tissues.

Src-induced activation of inducible T cell kinase (ITK) requires phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity and the Pleckstrin homology domain of inducible T cell kinase

The Tec family of tyrosine kinases are involved in signals emanating from cytokine receptors, antigen receptors, and other lymphoid cell surface receptors. One family member, ITK (inducible T cell kinase), is involved in T cell activation and can be activated by the T cell receptor and the CD28 cell surface receptor. This stimulation of tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of ITK can be mimicked by the Src family kinase Lck. We have explored the mechanism of this requirement for Src family kinases in the activation of ITK. We found that coexpression of ITK and Src results in increased membrane association, tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of ITK, which could be blocked by inhibitors of the lipid kinase phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) as well as overexpression of the p85 subunit of PI 3-kinase. Removal of the Pleckstrin homology domain (PH) of ITK resulted in a kinase that could no longer be induced to localize to the membrane or be activated by Src. The PH of ITK was also able to bind inositol phosphates phosphorylated at the D3 position. Membrane targeting of ITK without the PH recovered its ability to be activated by Src. These results suggest that ITK can be activated by a combination of Src and PI 3-kinase.

Constitutive and impaired signaling of leptin receptors containing the Gln → Pro extracellular domain fatty mutation

Leptin (OB), an adipocyte-secreted circulating hormone, and its receptor (OB-R) are key components of an endocrine loop that regulates mammalian body weight. In this report we have analyzed signal transduction activities of OB-R containing the fatty mutation [OB-R(fa)], a single amino acid substitution at position 269 (Gln → Pro) in the OB-R extracellular domain that results in the obese phenotype of the fatty rat. We find that this mutant receptor exhibits both ligand-independent transcriptional activation via interleukin 6 and hematopoietin receptor response elements and ligand-independent activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) proteins 1 and 3. However, OB-R(fa) is unable to constitutively activate STAT5B and is highly impaired for ligand induced activation of STAT5B compared with OB-R(wt). Introduction of the fatty mutation into a OB-R/G-CSF-R chimera generates a receptor with constitutive character that is similar but distinct from that of OB-R(fa). Constitutive mutant OB-R(fa) receptor signaling is repressed by coexpression of OB-R(wt). The implications of an extracellular domain amino acid substitution generating a cytokine receptor with a partially constitutive phenotype are discussed both in terms of the mechanism of OB-R triggering and the biology of the fatty rat.

Protein phosphatase 2C dephosphorylates and inactivates cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator

cAMP-dependent phosphorylation activates the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) in epithelia. However, the protein phosphatase (PP) that dephosphorylates and inactivates CFTR in airway and intestinal epithelia, two major sites of disease, is not certain. We found that in airway and colonic epithelia, neither okadaic acid nor FK506 prevented inactivation of CFTR when cAMP was removed. These results suggested that a phosphatase distinct from PP1, PP2A, and PP2B was responsible. Because PP2C is insensitive to these inhibitors, we tested the hypothesis that it regulates CFTR. We found that PP2Cα is expressed in airway and T84 intestinal epithelia. To test its activity on CFTR, we generated recombinant human PP2Cα and found that it dephosphorylated CFTR and an R domain peptide in vitro. Moreover, in cell-free patches of membrane, addition of PP2Cα inactivated CFTR Cl− channels; reactivation required readdition of kinase. Finally, coexpression of PP2Cα with CFTR in epithelia reduced the Cl− current and increased the rate of channel inactivation. These results suggest that PP2C may be the okadaic acid-insensitive phosphatase that regulates CFTR in human airway and T84 colonic epithelia. It has been suggested that phosphatase inhibitors could be of therapeutic value in cystic fibrosis; our data suggest that PP2C may be an important phosphatase to target.

Epstein–Barr virus-induced gene 3 and the p35 subunit of interleukin 12 form a novel heterodimeric hematopoietin

The Epstein–Barr virus-induced gene 3 (EBI3) is a novel soluble hematopoietin component related to the p40 subunit of interleukin 12 (IL-12). When EBI3 was expressed in cells, it accumulated in the endoplasmic reticulum and associated with the molecular chaperone calnexin, indicating that subsequent processing and secretion might be dependent on association with a second subunit. Coimmunoprecipitations from lysates and culture media of cells transfected with expression vectors for EBI3 and/or the p35 subunit of IL-12 now reveal a specific association of EBI3 with p35. Coexpression of EBI3 and p35 mutually facilitates their secretion. Most importantly, a large fraction of p35 in extracts of the trophoblast component of a human full-term normal placenta specifically coimmunoprecipitated with EBI3, indicating that EBI3 is in a heterodimer with p35, in vivo. Because EBI3 is expressed in EBV-transformed B lymphocytes, tonsil, spleen, and placental trophoblasts, the EBI3/p35 heterodimer is likely to be an important immunomodulator.

Three distinct domains of SSI-1/SOCS-1/JAB protein are required for its suppression of interleukin 6 signaling

Cytokine-inducible protein SSI-1 [signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT)-induced STAT inhibitor 1, also referred to as SOCS-1 (suppressor of cytokine signaling 1) or JAB (Janus kinase-binding protein)] negatively regulates cytokine receptor signaling by inhibition of JAK kinases. The SSI family of proteins includes eight members that are structurally characterized by an SH2 domain and a C-terminal conserved region that we have called the SC-motif. In this study, we investigated the roles of these domains in the function of SSI-1. Results of reporter assays demonstrated that the pre-SH2 domain (24 aa in front of the SH2 domain) and the SH2 domain of SSI-1 were required for the suppression by SSI-1 of interleukin 6 signaling. Coexpression studies of COS7 cells revealed that these domains also were required for inhibition of three JAKs (JAK1, JAK2, and TYK2). Furthermore, deletion of the SH2 domain, but not the pre-SH2 domain, resulted in loss of association of SSI-1 with TYK2. Thus, SSI-1 associates with JAK family kinase via its SH2 domain, and the pre-SH2 domain is required for the function of SSI-1. Deletion of the SC-motif markedly reduced expression of SSI-1 protein in M1 cells, and this reduction was reversed by treatment with proteasome inhibitors, suggesting that this motif is required to protect the SSI-1 molecule from proteolytic degradation. Based on these findings, we concluded that three distinct domains of SSI-1 (the pre-SH2 domain, the SH2 domain, and the SC-motif) cooperate in the suppression of interleukin 6 signaling.

A G protein γ subunit-like domain shared between RGS11 and other RGS proteins specifies binding to Gβ5 subunits

Regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins act as GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) toward the α subunits of heterotrimeric, signal-transducing G proteins. RGS11 contains a G protein γ subunit-like (GGL) domain between its Dishevelled/Egl-10/Pleckstrin and RGS domains. GGL domains are also found in RGS6, RGS7, RGS9, and the Caenorhabditis elegans protein EGL-10. Coexpression of RGS11 with different Gβ subunits reveals specific interaction between RGS11 and Gβ5. The expression of mRNA for RGS11 and Gβ5 in human tissues overlaps. The Gβ5/RGS11 heterodimer acts as a GAP on Gαo, apparently selectively. RGS proteins that contain GGL domains appear to act as GAPs for Gα proteins and form complexes with specific Gβ subunits, adding to the combinatorial complexity of G protein-mediated signaling pathways.

Distinct roles for E2F proteins in cell growth control and apoptosis

E2F transcription activity is composed of a family of heterodimers encoded by distinct genes. Through the overproduction of each of the five known E2F proteins in mammalian cells, we demonstrate that a large number of genes encoding proteins important for cell cycle regulation and DNA replication can be activated by the E2F proteins and that there are distinct specificities in the activation of these genes by individual E2F family members. Coexpression of each E2F protein with the DP1 heterodimeric partner does not significantly alter this specificity. We also find that only E2F1 overexpression induces cells to undergo apoptosis, despite the fact that at least two other E2F family members, E2F2 and E2F3, are equally capable of inducing S phase. The ability of E2F1 to induce apoptosis appears to result from the specific induction of an apoptosis-promoting activity rather than the lack of induction of a survival activity, because co-expression of E2F2 and E2F3 does not rescue cells from E2F1-mediated apoptosis. We conclude that E2F family members play distinct roles in cell cycle control and that E2F1 may function as a specific signal for the initiation of an apoptosis pathway that must normally be blocked for a productive proliferation event.

Enhanced stability of maize endosperm ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase is gained through mutants that alter subunit interactions

Temperature lability of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGP; glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase; ADP: α-d-glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase, EC 2.7.7.27), a key starch biosynthetic enzyme, may play a significant role in the heat-induced loss in maize seed weight and yield. Here we report the isolation and characterization of heat-stable variants of maize endosperm AGP. Escherichia coli cells expressing wild type (WT) Shrunken2 (Sh2), and Brittle2 (Bt2) exhibit a reduced capacity to produce glycogen when grown at 42°C. Mutagenesis of Sh2 and coexpression with WT Bt2 led to the isolation of multiple mutants capable of synthesizing copious amounts of glycogen at this temperature. An increase in AGP stability was found in each of four mutants examined. Initial characterization revealed that the BT2 protein was elevated in two of these mutants. Yeast two-hybrid studies were conducted to determine whether the mutant SH2 proteins more efficiently recruit the BT2 subunit into tetramer assembly. These experiments showed that replacement of WT SH2 with the heat-stable SH2HS33 enhanced interaction between the SH2 and BT2 subunits. In agreement, density gradient centrifugation of heated and nonheated extracts from WT and one of the mutants, Sh2hs33, identified a greater propensity for heterotetramer dissociation in WT AGP. Sequencing of Sh2hs33 and several other mutants identified a His-to-Tyr mutation at amino acid position 333. Hence, a single point mutation in Sh2 can increase the stability of maize endosperm AGP through enhanced subunit interactions.

Geranyl diphosphate synthase: Cloning, expression, and characterization of this prenyltransferase as a heterodimer

Geranyl diphosphate synthase, which catalyzes the condensation of dimethylallyl diphosphate and isopentenyl diphosphate to geranyl diphosphate, the key precursor of monoterpene biosynthesis, was purified from isolated oil glands of spearmint. Peptide fragments generated from the pure proteins of 28 and 37 kDa revealed amino acid sequences that matched two cDNA clones obtained by random screening of a peppermint-oil gland cDNA library. The deduced sequences of both proteins showed some similarity to existing prenyltransferases, and both contained a plastid-targeting sequence. Expression of each cDNA individually yielded no detectable prenyltransferase activity; however, coexpression of the two together produced functional geranyl diphosphate synthase. Antibodies raised against each protein were used to demonstrate that both subunits were required to produce catalytically active native and recombinant enzymes, thus confirming that geranyl diphosphate synthase is a heterodimer.

Interaction of measles virus glycoproteins with the surface of uninfected peripheral blood lymphocytes induces immunosuppression in vitro

A marked suppression of immune function has long been recognized as a major cause of the high morbidity and mortality rate associated with acute measles. As a hallmark of measles virus (MV)-induced immunosuppression, peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) isolated from patients exhibit a significantly reduced capacity to proliferate in response to mitogens, allogens, or recall antigens. In an in vitro system we show that proliferation of naive PBLs [responder cells (RCs)] in response to a variety of stimuli was significantly impaired after cocultivation with MV-infected, UV-irradiated autologous PBLs [presenter cells (PCs)]. We further observed that a 50% reduction in proliferation of RCs could still be observed when the ratio of PC to RC was 1:100. The effect was completely abolished after physical separation of the two populations, which suggests that soluble factors were not involved. Proliferative inhibition of the RCs was observed after short cocultivation with MV-infected cells, which indicates that surface contact between one or more viral proteins and the RC population was required. We identified that the complex of both MV glycoproteins, F and H, is critically involved in triggering MV-induced suppression of mitogen-dependent proliferation, since the effect was not observed (i) using a recombinant MV in which F and H were replaced with vesicular stomatitis virus G or (ii) when either of these proteins was expressed alone. Coexpression of F and H, however, lead to a significant proliferative inhibition in the RC population. Our data indicate that a small number of MV-infected PBLs can induce a general nonresponsiveness in uninfected PBLs by surface contact, which may, in turn, account for the general suppression of immune responses observed in patients with acute measles.

Expression of the Bs2 pepper gene confers resistance to bacterial spot disease in tomato

The Bs2 resistance gene of pepper specifically recognizes and confers resistance to strains of Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria that contain the corresponding bacterial avirulence gene, avrBs2. The involvement of avrBs2 in pathogen fitness and its prevalence in many X. campestris pathovars suggests that the Bs2 gene may be durable in the field and provide resistance when introduced into other plant species. Employing a positional cloning strategy, the Bs2 locus was isolated and the gene was identified by coexpression with avrBs2 in an Agrobacterium-mediated transient assay. A single candidate gene, predicted to encode motifs characteristic of the nucleotide binding site–leucine-rich repeat class of resistance genes, was identified. This gene specifically controlled the hypersensitive response when transiently expressed in susceptible pepper and tomato lines and in a nonhost species, Nicotiana benthamiana, and was designated as Bs2. Functional expression of Bs2 in stable transgenic tomatoes supports its use as a source of resistance in other Solanaceous plant species.