GPI-anchored proteins are delivered to recycling endosomes via a distinct cdc42-regulated, clathrin-independent pinocytic pathway

Endocytosis of cell-surface proteins via specific pathways is critical for their function. We show that multiple glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins (GPI-APs) are endocytosed to the recycling endosomal compartment but not to the Golgi via a nonclathrin, noncaveolae mediated pathway. GPI anchoring is a positive signal for internalization into rab5-independent tubular-vesicular endosomes also responsible for a major fraction of fluid-phase uptake; molecules merely lacking cytoplasmic extensions are not included. Unlike the internalization of detergent-resistant membrane (DRM)-associated interleukin 2 receptor, endocytosis of DRM-associated GPI-APs is unaffected by inhibition of RhoA or dynamin 2 activity. Inhibition of Rho family GTPase cdc42, but not Rac1, reduces fluid-phase uptake and redistributes GPI-APs to the clathrin-mediated pathway. These results describe a distinct constitutive pinocytic pathway, specifically regulated by cdc42.

The distribution and morphological characteristics of cholinergic cells in the brain of monotremes as revealed by ChAT immunohistochemistry

The present study employs choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) immunohistochemistry to identify the cholinergic neuronal population in the central nervous system of the monotremes. Two of the three extant species of monotreme were studied: the platypus (Omithorhynchus anatinus) and the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus). The distribution of cholinergic cells in the brain of these two species was virtually identical. Distinct groups of cholinergic cells were observed in the striatum, basal forebrain, habenula, pontomesencephalon, cranial nerve motor nuclei, and spinal cord. In contrast to other tetrapods studied with this technique, we failed to find evidence for cholinergic cells in the hypothalamus, the parabigeminal nucleus (or nucleus isthmus), or the cerebral cortex. The lack of hypothalamic cholinergic neurons creates a hiatus in the continuous antero-posterior aggregation of cholinergic neurons seen in other tetrapods. This hiatus might be functionally related to the phenomenology of monotreme sleep and to the ontogeny of sleep in mammals, as juvenile placental mammals exhibit a similar combination of sleep elements to that found in adult monotremes. Copyright (C) 2002 S. Karger AG, Basel.

A genomewide survey of developmentally relevant genes in Ciona intestinalis - V. Genes for receptor tyrosine kinase pathway and Notch signaling pathway

In the present survey, we identified most of the genes involved in the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and Notch signaling pathways in the draft genome sequence of Ciona intestinalis, a basal chordate. Compared to vertebrates, most of the genes found in the Ciona genome had fewer paralogues, although several genes including ephrin, Eph and fringe appeared to have multiplied or duplicated independently in the ascidian genome. In contrast, some genes including kit/flt, PDGF and Trk receptor tyrosine kinases were not found in the present survey, suggesting that these genes are innovations in the vertebrate lineage or lost in the ascidian lineage. The gene set identified in the present analysis provides an insight into genes for the RTK, MAPK and Notch signaling pathways in the ancient chordate genome and thereby how chordates evolved these signaling pathway.

Rab23, a negative regulator of hedgehog signaling, localizes to the plasma membrane and the endocytic pathway

The regulation of hedgehog signaling by vesicular trafficking was exemplified by the finding that Rab23, a Rab-GTPase vesicular transport protein, is mutated in open brain mice. In this study, the localization of Rab23 was analyzed by light and immunoelectron microscopy after expression of wild-type (Rab23-GFP), constitutively active Rab23 (Rab23Q68L-GFP), and inactive Rab23 (Rab23S23N-GFP) in a range of mammalian cell types. Rab23-GFP and Rab23Q68L-GFP were predominantly localized to the plasma membrane but were also associated with intracellular vesicular structures, whereas Rab23S23N-GFP was predominantly cytosolic. Vesicular Rab23-GFP colocalized with Rab5Q79L and internalized transferrin-biotin, but not with a marker of the late endosome or the Golgi complex. To investigate Rab23 with respect to members of the hedgehog signaling pathway, Rab23-GFP was coexpressed with either patched or smoothened. Patched colocalized with intracellular Rab23-GFP but smoothened did not. Analysis of patched distribution by light and immunoelectron microscopy revealed it is primarily localized to endosomal elements, including transferrin receptor-positive early endosomes and putative endosome carrier vesicles and, to a lesser extent, with LBPA-positive late endosomes, but was excluded from the plasma membrane. Neither patched or smoothened distribution was altered in the presence of wild-type nor mutant Rab23-GFP, suggesting that despite the endosomal colocalization of Rab23 and patched, it is likely that Rab23 acts more distally in regulating hedgehog signaling.

Annexin II regulates multivesicular endosome biogenesis in the degradation pathway of animal cells

Proteins of the annexin family are believed to be involved in membrane-related processes, but their precise functions remain unclear. Here, we have made use of several experimental approaches, including pathological conditions, RNA interference and in vitro transport assays, to study the function of annexin II in the endocytic pathway. We find that annexin II is required for the biogenesis of multivesicular transport intermediates destined for late endosomes, by regulating budding from early endosomes-but not the membrane invagination process. Hence, the protein appears to be a necessary component of the machinery controlling endosomal membrane dynamics and multivesicular endosome biogenesis. We also find that annexin II interacts with cholesterol and that its subcellular distribution is modulated by the subcellular distribution of cholesterol, including in cells from patients with the cholesterol-storage disorder Niemann-Pick C. We conclude that annexin II forms cholesterol-containing platforms on early endosomal membranes, and that these platforms regulate the onset of the degradation pathway in animal cells.

Translation termination and protein folding pathway genes are not correlated in gastric cancer

Background: The eukaryotic release factor 3 (eRF3) has been shown to affect both tubulin and actin cytoskeleton, suggesting a role in cytoskeleton assembly, mitotic spindle formation and chromosome segregation. Also, direct interactions between eRF3 and subunits of the cytosolic chaperonin CCT have been described. Moreover, both eRF3a and CCT subunits have been described to be up-regulated in cancer tissues. Our aim was to evaluate the hypothesis that eRF3 expression levels are correlated with the expression of genes encoding proteins involved in the tubulin folding pathways. Methods: Relative expression levels of eRF1, eRF3a/GSPT1, PFDN4, CCT2, CCT4, and TBCA genes in tumour samples relative to their adjacent normal tissues were investigated using real time-polymerase chain reaction in 20 gastric cancer patients. Results: The expression levels of eRF3a/GSPT1 were not correlated with the expression levels of the other genes studied. However, significant correlations were detected between the other genes, both within intestinal and diffuse type tumours. Conclusions: eRF3a/GSPT1 expression at the mRNA level is independent from both cell translation rates and from the expression of the genes involved in tubulin-folding pathways. The differences in the patterns of expression of the genes studied support the hypothesis of genetically independent pathways in the origin of intestinal and diffuse type gastric tumours.

Alright: a distinctive pathway of change from the 18th century to the present day

The origins of the vast majority of the words we use in contemporary English go back as far as Old or Middle English. In contrast, alright and all right in their present-day application appear to be the result of a more recent evolution, as there is no evidence of their use, not even in the two-word form, in the published fiction before the 18th century. Furthermore, there are not in the research literature, at least to my knowledge, any previous linguistic studies on this specific subject matter. The present article is simply an attempt to describe the various processes of diachronic change that brought about the emergence of alright.

Cholesterol 24S-Hydroxylase overexpression inhibits the liver X receptor (LXR) pathway by activating small guanosine triphosphate-binding proteins (sGTPases) in neuronal cells

The neuronal-specific cholesterol 24S-hydroxylase (CYP46A1) is important for brain cholesterol elimination. Cyp46a1 null mice exhibit severe deficiencies in learning and hippocampal long-term potentiation, suggested to be caused by a decrease in isoprenoid intermediates of the mevalonate pathway. Conversely, transgenic mice overexpressing CYP46A1 show an improved cognitive function. These results raised the question of whether CYP46A1 expression can modulate the activity of proteins that are crucial for neuronal function, namely of isoprenylated small guanosine triphosphate-binding proteins (sGTPases). Our results show that CYP46A1 overexpression in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and in primary cultures of rat cortical neurons leads to an increase in 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase activity and to an overall increase in membrane levels of RhoA, Rac1, Cdc42 and Rab8. This increase is accompanied by a specific increase in RhoA activation. Interestingly, treatment with lovastatin or a geranylgeranyltransferase-I inhibitor abolished the CYP46A1 effect. The CYP46A1-mediated increase in sGTPases membrane abundance was confirmed in vivo, in membrane fractions obtained from transgenic mice overexpressing this enzyme. Moreover, CYP46A1 overexpression leads to a decrease in the liver X receptor (LXR) transcriptional activity and in the mRNA levels of ATP-binding cassette transporter 1, sub-family A, member 1 and apolipoprotein E. This effect was abolished by inhibition of prenylation or by co-transfection of a RhoA dominant-negative mutant. Our results suggest a novel regulatory axis in neurons; under conditions of membrane cholesterol reduction by increased CYP46A1 expression, neurons increase isoprenoid synthesis and sGTPase prenylation. This leads to a reduction in LXR activity, and consequently to a decrease in the expression of LXR target genes.

Thermodynamic pathway for the formation of SnSe and SnSe2 polycrystalline thin films by selenization of metal precursors

In this work, tin selenide thin films (SnSex) were grown on soda lime glass substrates by selenization of dc magnetron sputtered Sn metallic precursors. Selenization was performed at maximum temperatures in the range 300 °C to 570 °C. The thickness and the composition of the films were analysed using step profilometry and energy dispersive spectroscopy, respectively. The films were structurally and optically investigated by X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy and optical transmittance and reflectance measurements. X-Ray diffraction patterns suggest that for temperatures between 300 °C and 470 °C, the films are composed of the hexagonal-SnSe2 phase. By increasing the temperature, the films selenized at maximum temperatures of 530 °C and 570 °C show orthorhombic-SnSe as the dominant phase with a preferential crystal orientation along the (400) crystallographic plane. Raman scattering analysis allowed the assignment of peaks at 119 cm−1 and 185 cm−1 to the hexagonal-SnSe2 phase and those at 108 cm−1, 130 cm−1 and 150 cm−1 to the orthorhombic-SnSe phase. All samples presented traces of condensed amorphous Se with a characteristic Raman peak located at 255 cm−1. From optical measurements, the estimated band gap energies for hexagonal-SnSe2 were close to 0.9 eV and 1.7 eV for indirect forbidden and direct transitions, respectively. The samples with the dominant orthorhombic-SnSe phase presented estimated band gap energies of 0.95 eV and 1.15 eV for indirect allowed and direct allowed transitions, respectively.

A checklist for patient safety rounds at the care pathway level

Objective - To define a checklist that can be used to assess the performance of a department and evaluate the implementation of quality management (QM) activities across departments or pathways in acute care hospitals. Design - We developed and tested a checklist for the assessment of QM activities at department level in a cross-sectional study using on-site visits by trained external auditors. Setting and Participants - A sample of 292 hospital departments of 74 acute care hospitals across seven European countries. In every hospital, four departments for the conditions: acute myocardial infarction (AMI), stroke, hip fracture and deliveries participated. Main outcome measures - Four measures of QM activities were evaluated at care pathway level focusing on specialized expertise and responsibility (SER), evidence-based organization of pathways (EBOP), patient safety strategies and clinical review (CR). Results - Participating departments attained mean values on the various scales between 1.2 and 3.7. The theoretical range was 0-4. Three of the four QM measures are identical for the four conditions, whereas one scale (EBOP) has condition-specific items. Correlations showed that every factor was related, but also distinct, and added to the overall picture of QM at pathway level. Conclusion - The newly developed checklist can be used across various types of departments and pathways in acute care hospitals like AMI, deliveries, stroke and hip fracture. The anticipated users of the checklist are internal (e.g. peers within the hospital and hospital executive board) and external auditors (e.g. healthcare inspectorate, professional or patient organizations).

Caracterização da função do monóxido de azoto e glutationo hepáticos na sensabilidade periférica à insulina

xi RESUMO A acção da insulina no músculo esquelético depende de um reflexo parassimpático hepático que conduz à libertação de uma substância hepática sensibilizadora da insulina, designada por HISS, responsável por cerca de 55% do efeito hipoglicemiante da insulina. A acção da HISS é finamente regulada pelo monóxido de azoto (NO) hepático e pelo estado prandial, aumentando no período pós-prandial imediato e diminuindo progressivamente com as horas de jejum. A secreção da HISS pode ser inibida cirúrgica ou farmacologicamente, quer por desnervação selectiva do plexo anterior hepático, quer por administração de atropina, quer por inibição do sintase do NO (NOS) hepático. O objectivo geral do trabalho apresentado nesta dissertação foi a caracterização da via de transdução de sinal que conduz à libertação da HISS. O modelo utilizado neste estudo foi o rato Wistar. A sensibilidade à insulina foi avaliada através do teste rápido de sensibilidade à insulina (RIST). A primeira hipótese de trabalho testada foi que a sequência de eventos que conduzem à secreção da HISS inicia-se com a activação do sistema parassimpático hepático seguida de activação do NOS hepático com subsequente produção de NO e activação do guanilato ciclase (GC). Observou-se que a administração de um dador de NO reverteu a resistência à insulina induzida, quer por inibição do NOS hepático, quer por antagonismo dos receptores muscarínicos com atropina. Em contraste, a resistência à insulina produzida por inibição do NOS hepático não foi revertida por administração intraportal de acetilcolina (ACh). Constatou-se que a inibição do GC hepático diminuiu a sensibilidade à insulina. Estes resultados sugerem que: a ACh libertada no fígado induz a síntese de NO hepático que conduz à libertação da HISS, que por sua vez é modulada pelo GC hepático. A libertação da HISS em resposta à insulina é regulada pelo estado prandial. Uma vez que os níveis hepáticos de glutationo (GSH) se encontram, tal como a HISS, diminuídos no estado de jejum e aumentados após a ingestão de uma refeição, testou-se a hipótese de que o GSH hepático está envolvido na secreção da HISS. Observou-se que a depleção do GSH hepático induziu resistência à insulina, comparável à obtida após inibição do NOS hepático. Estes resultados suportam a hipótese de que o GSH hepático desempenha um papel crítico na acção periférica da insulina. Considerando que, no estado de jejum, tanto os níveis de GSH hepático como os níveis de NO hepático são baixos, testou-se a hipótese de que a co-administração intraportal de um dador de GSH e de um dador de NO promove um aumento da sensibilidade à insulina no estado de jejum, devido ao restabelecimento do mecanismo da HISS. Observou-se que a administração sequencial de dadores de GSH e de NO no fígado provocou um aumento na sensibilidade à insulina, dependente da dose de dador de GSH administrada. Concluiu-se portanto que ambos, GSH e NO, são essenciais para que o mecanismo da HISS esteja completamente funcional. O GSH e o NO reagem para formar um S-nitrosotiol, o S-nitrosoglutationo (GSNO). Os resultados supra-mencionados conduziram à formulação da hipótese de que a secreção/acção da HISS depende da formação de GSNO. Observou-se que a administração intravenosa de S-nitrosotióis (RSNOs) aumentou a sensibilidade à insulina, em animais submetidos a um período de jejum, ao contrário da administração intraportal destes fármacos, o que RSNOs têm uma acção periférica, mas não hepática, na sensibilidade à insulina. Os resultados obtidos conduziram à reformulação da hipótese da HISS, sugerindo que a ingestão de uma refeição activa os nervos parassimpáticos hepáticos levando à libertação de ACh no fígado que, por sua vez activa o NOS. Simultaneamente, ocorre um aumento dos níveis de GSH hepático que reage com o NO hepático para formar um composto nitrosado, o GSNO. Este composto mimetiza a acção hipoglicemiante da HISS no músculo esquelético. SUMMARY Insulin action at the skeletal muscle depends on a hepatic parasympathetic reflex that promotes the release of a hepatic insulin sensitizing substance (HISS) from the liver, which contributes 55% to total insulin action. HISS action is modulated by hepatic nitric oxide (NO) and also by the prandial status so as to, in the immediate ostprandial state, HISS action is maximal, decreasing with the duration of fasting. HISS secretion may be inhibited by interruption of the hepatic parasympathetic reflex, achieved either by surgical denervation of the liver or by cholinergic blockade with atropine, or by prevention of hepatic NO release, using NO synthase (NOS) antagonists. The main objective of this work was to characterize the signal transduction pathways that lead to HISS secretion by the liver. Wistar rats were used and insulin sensitivity was evaluated using the rapid insulin sensitivity test (RIST). The first hypothesis tested was that the sequence of events that lead to HISS secretion starts with an increase in the hepatic parasympathetic tone, followed by the activation of hepatic NOS and subsequent triggering of guanylate cyclase (GC). We observed that insulin resistance produced either by muscarinic receptor antagonism with atropine or by hepatic NOS inhibition was reversed by the intraportal administration of an NO donor. In contrast, intraportal acetylcholine (ACh) did not restore insulin sensitivity after NOS inhibition. We also observed that GC inhibition lead to a decrease in insulin sensitivity.These results suggest that the release of ACh in the liver activates hepatic NO synthesis in order to allow HISS secretion, through a signaling pathway modulated by GC. HISS release in response to insulin is controlled by the prandial status. The second hypothesis tested was that glutathione (GSH) is involved in HISS secretion since the hepatic levels of GSH are, like HISS action, decreased in the fasted state and increased after ingestion of a meal. We observed that hepatic GSH depletion led to insulin resistance of the same magnitude of that observed after inhibition of hepatic NOS. These results support the hypothesis that hepatic GSH is crucial in peripheral insulin action. Since, in the fasted state, both hepatic GSH and NO levels are low, we tested the hypothesis that intraportal o-administration of a GSH donor and an NO donor enhances insulin sensitivity in fasted Wistar rats, by restoring HISS secretion. We observed that GSH and NO increased insulin sensitivity in a GSH dose-dependent manner. We concluded that HISS secretion requires elevated levels of both GSH and NO in the liver. GSH and NO react to form a S-nitrosothiol, S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO). The last hypothesis tested in this work was that HISS secretion/ action depends on the formation of GSNO. We observed that intravenous administration of -nitrosothiols (RSNOs) increased insulin sensitivity in animals fasted for 24 h, in contrast with the intraportal administration of the drug. This result suggests that RSNOs enhanced insulin sensitivity through a peripheral, and not hepatic, mechanism. The results obtained led to a restructuring of the HISS hypothesis, suggesting that the ingestion of a meal triggers the hepatic parasympathetic nerves, leading to the release of Ach in the liver, which in turn activates NOS. Simultaneously, hepatic GSH levels increase and react with NO to form a nitrosated compound, GSNO. S-nitrosoglutathione mimics HISS hypoglycaemic action at the skeletal muscle.

Analysis of the pathway of developing a national mental health plan for Suriname

ABSTRACT: The aim of this analysis was to analyze and describe the steps that have been taken in the development of the mental health policy in Suriname after the WHO AIMS. The objectives are: 1.To review the steps to be taken in developing a mental health policy and plan for a country 2.To gather information and data concerning mental health policy and plan development in Suriname 3.To draw conclusion from the experience gained that can be applied to other countries. In general, the information that was gathered from the four countries Guyana, Barbados, Trinidad & Tobago and Suriname, was compared with the WHO steps for developing a mental health policy and plan. Were these steps taken into consideration, when developing their mental health policy and plan? If not, what were the reasons why it did not happen? The checklist for evaluating a mental health plan was used in Suriname. This checklist assisted to see if the results of the recommendations given by the WHO AIMS to develop a effective and balanced mental health plan were taken into consideration. The mayor findings of the analysis are that Suriname as well as Guyana used the steps in developing their mental health policy and plan. Barbados and Trinidad & Tobago did not develop a mental health policy and plan. Suriname and Guyana have a mental health coordinating body at the Ministry of Health. Trinidad & Tobago as well as Barbados have a mental health focal person at the Ministry of Health of the respective countries. It can be concluded that successfully improving of health systems and services for mental health is combining theoretical concepts, expert knowledge and cooperation of many stakeholders. The appointment of a mental health coordinating unit at the Ministry of Health is crucial for the development of mental health in a country. Furthermore, mental health is everyone’s business and responsibility. Implementing the steps to be taken when developing a mental health policy and plan as recommended by WHO may be a slow process requiring the mobilization of political will. That’s why it is crucial that persons responsible for this process work close with all stakeholders in relevant sectors, taking their needs into consideration and try to translate that in clear objectives. It is common knowledge that improving the quality of mental health must be accompanied by the availability of financial and human resources. Finally, a mental health policy and plan should be one document tackling all aspects of mental health of a community.

New spectroscopic and electrochemical insights on a class I superoxide reductase: evidence for an intramolecular electron-transfer pathway

Biochem. J. (2011) 438,485–494 doi:10.1042/BJ20110836

O2/CO2-sensitive cyclic AMP-signalling pathway in peripheral chemoreceptors

RESUMO: O corpo carotídeo (CB) é um pequeno órgão sensível a variações na PaO2, PaCO2 e pH. As células tipo I (células glómicas) do corpo carotídeo, as unidades sensoriais deste órgão, libertam neurotransmissores em resposta às variações dos gases arteriais. Estes neurotransmissores atuam quer em recetores pré-sinápticos, localizados nas células tipo I, quer em recetores póssinápticos, localizados nas terminações do nervo do seio carotídeo, ou em ambos. A activação dos recetores pré-sinápticos modula a atividade do corpo carotídeo, enquanto que, a activação dos recetores pós-sinápticos, de carater excitatório, desencadeia um aumento da frequência de descarga das fibras do CSN, com subsequente despolarização dos neurónios do gânglio petroso, e posterior despolarização de um grupo específico de neurónios do centro respiratório central, desencadeando, como resposta final, hiperventilação. Estes recetores pré- e pós-sinápticos podem ser classificados em ionotrópicos ou metabotrópicos, estando os últimos acoplados a adenilatos ciclases transmembranares (tmAC). O mecanismo exato pelo qual as variações dos gases arteriais são detetadas pelo CB não se encontra ainda completamente elucidado, mas tem sido sugerido que alterações nos níveis de cAMP estejam associadas ao mecanismo de deteção de variações de O2 e CO2. Os níveis de cAMP podem ser regulados através da sua via de síntese, mediada por dois tipos de adenilatos ciclases: tmAC sensível aos eurotransmissores e adenilato ciclase solúvel (sAC)sensível a variações de HCO3/CO2, e pela sua via de degradação mediada por fosfodiesterases. A via de degradação do cAMP pode ser manipulada farmacologicamente, funcionando enquanto alvo terapêutico para o tratamento de patologias do foro respiratório (e.g. asma, hipertensão pulmonar, doença pulmonar obstructiva crónica e apneia do sono), que induzem um aumento da actividade do CB.O trabalho descrito nesta dissertação partiu da hipótese de que a actividade do CB é manipulada por fármacos, que interferem com a via de sinalização do cAMP, tendo sido nosso objectivo geral, investigar o papel do cAMP na quimiotransdução do CB de rato, e determinar se a actividade dos enzimas responsáveis pela via de sinalização do cAMP é ou não regulada por variações de O2/CO2. Assim, a relevância deste trabalho é a de estudar e identificar possíveis alvos moleculares (sAC, isoformas de tmAC e PDE) com potencial para serem usados no tratamento de patologias relacionadas com o controlo respiratório. A primeira parte do presente trabalho, centrou-se na caracterização farmacológica da PDE4 no CB e em tecidos não quimiorecetores (e.g. gânglio cervical superior e artérias carótidas), e na observação do efeito de hipóxia aguda na acumulação dos níveis de cAMP, induzidos pelos inibidores de PDE, nestes tecidos. A quantificação de cAMP foi efectuada por técnica imunoenzimática (EIA), tendo sido elaboradas curvas de dose-resposta para os efeitos de inibidores, não específicos (IBMX) e específicos para a PDE2 e PDE4 (EHNA, Rolipram e Ro 20-1724), nos níveis de cAMP acumulados, em situações de normóxia (20%O2/5%CO2) e hipóxia (5%O2/5%CO2). A caracterização das PDE no gânglio cervical superior foi aprofundada, utilizando-se a técnica de transferência de energia de ressonância por fluorescência (FRET) em culturas primárias de neurónios, na presença de inibidores não específicos (IBMX) e específicos para a PDE3 e PDE4 (milrinone e rolipram, respetivamente). Foram igualmente estudadas, através de RT-qPCR, as alterações na expressão de PDE3A-B e PDE4A-D, no gânglio cervical superior, em resposta a diferentes percentagens de oxigénio. Na segunda parte do trabalho investigou-se a via de síntese do cAMP no CB em resposta a variações na concentração de HCO3/CO2. Em concreto, o protocolo experimental centrou-se na caracterização da sAC, dado que a sua actividade é regulada por variações de HCO3/CO2. A caracterização da expressão e regulação da sAC, em resposta a variações de HCO3/CO2 ,foi efectuada no CB e em tecidos não quimioreceptores periféricos (e.g. gânglio cervical superior, petroso e nodoso) por qRT-PCR. A actividade deste enzima foi caracterizada indirectamente através da quantificação dos níveis de cAMP (quantificação por EIA), induzidos por diferentes concentrações de HCO3/CO2, na presença de MDL-12,33-A, um inibidore da tmAC. A expressão das isoformas da tmAC no CB e gânglio petroso foi determinada por RT-qPCR. Adicionalmente, estudámos a contribuição relativa da tmAC e sAC no mecanismo de sensibilidade ao CO2 no CB. Para o efeito foram estudadas as alterações: 1) nos níveis de cAMP (quantificado por EIA) na presença de diferentes concentrações de HCO3/CO2 e ao longo do tempo (5-30 min); 2) na ativação da proteína cinase A (PKA, FRET baseado em sensores) em células tipo I do CB; e 3) na frequência de descarga do CSN (registos) na presença e ausência de ativadores e inibidores da sAC,tmAC e PKA. Por último, foi caracterizada a expressão e actividade da sAC nos quimioreceptors centrais (locus ceruleus, rafe e medula ventro-lateral) através de técnicas de RT-qPCR e EIA. A expressão das isoformas da tmAC foi aprofundada no locus coeruleus através de RT-qPCR. Por fim, comparámos a contribuição da tmAC e sAC nos níveis de cAMP no locus coeruleus em condições de normocapnia e hipercapnia.O nosso trabalho teve os seguintes resultados principais: 1) PDE4 está funcional no corpo carotídeo, artérias carótidas e gânglio cervical superior de rato, embora a PDE2 só se encontre funcional neste último; 2) Os efeitos dos inibidores de PDE nos níveis de acumulação de cAMP foram exacerbados em situações de hipóxia aguda no CB e artérias carótidas, mas foram atenuados no gânglio cervical superior; 3) No gânglio cervical superior, diferentes tipos de células apresentaram uma caracterização específica de PDEs, sugerindo uma subpopulação de células neste gânglio com funções fisiológicas distintas; 4) Embora todas as isoformas de PDE4 e PDE3 estivessem presentes no gânglio, a PDE3a, PDE4b e a PDE4d foram as isoformas mais expressas. Por outro lado, incubações de gânglio cervical superior, em diferentes percentagens de oxigénio, não alteraram (não regularam) significativamente a expressão das diferentes isoformas de PDE neste órgão; 5) a sAC encontra-se expressa e funcional no CB e nos quimiorecetores centrais estudados (locus coeruleus, rafe e medula ventrolateral). A sAC apresenta maior expressão no CB comparativamente aos restantes orgãos estudados, exceptuando os testículos, orgão controlo. Variações de HCO3/CO2 de 0/0 para 24/5 aumentaram os níveis de cAMP no CB e quimiorecetores centrais, tendo sido o aumento mais significativo observado no CB. Concentrações acima dos 24mM HCO3/5%CO2 não induziram alterações nos níveis de cAMP, sugerindo que a actividade da sAC se encontra saturada em condições fisiológicas (normocapnia) e que este enzima não desempenha qualquer papel na deteção de situações de hipercapnia; 6) No CB, a expressão das isoformas tmAC1, tmAC4, tmAC6 e tmAC9 é mais elevada comparativamente à expressão da sAC; 7) Utilizamos diferentes inibidores da tmAC (MDL 12-330A, 500μM, 2’5’-ddADO, 30-300μM, SQ 22536, 200μM) e da sAC (KH7, 10-100μM) para estudar a contribuição relativa destes enzimas na acumulação do cAMP no CB. Tanto a tmAC como a sAC contribuem para a acumulação dos níveis de cAMP em condições de hipercapnia. Contudo, existe um maior efeito destes inibidores nas condições de 12 mM HCO3/2.5%CO2 do que em condições de normocapnia e hipercapnia, sugerindo um papel relevante destes enzimas na atividade do CB em situações de hipocapnia; 8) Não se observaram variações nos níveis de cAMP em resposta a diferentes concentrações de HCO3/CO2 ao longo do tempo (5-30 min). O efeito inibitório induzido por ddADO e KH7 foi sobreponível após 5 ou 30 minutos de incubação em todas as concentrações de HCO3/CO2 estudadas; 9) Por último, verificou-se um aumento na frequência da descarga do nervo do seio carotídeo entre as condições de normocapnia e hipercapnia acídica. Ao contrário do KH7 (10μM), o 2’5’-ddADO reduziu significativamente a frequência de descarga do nervo, quer em condições de normocapnia quer de hipercapnia acídica. Contudo, não se verificou aumento na frequência de descarga do nervo entre normocapnia e hipercapnia isohídrica, sugerindo que a sensibilidade à hipercapnia no CB é mediada por variações de pH. Em conclusão, os resultados decorrentes deste trabalho permitiram demonstrar que, embora os enzimas que medeiam a via de sinalização do cAMP possam ser bons alvos terapêuticos em condições particulares, a sua actividade não é específica para o CB. Os resultados sugerem ainda que o cAMP não é um mediador específico da transdução à hipercapnia neste orgão. Contudo, os nossos resultados demonstraram que os níveis de cAMP são mais elevados em condições fisiológicas, o que sugere que o cAMP possa ter uma função homeostática neste orgão. Por último, o presente trabalho demonstrou que os aumentos de cAMP descritos por outros em condições de hipercapnia, não são observáveis quando o pH se encontra controlado. ------------------ ABSTRACT: The work presented in this dissertation was aimed to establish how specific is cAMP-signaling pathways in the CB mainly in different CO2 conditions and how O2 concentrations alter/drives the manipulation of cAMP signaling in the CB. The experimental studies included in this thesis sought to investigate the role of cAMP in the rat CB chemotransduction mechanisms and to determine whether the enzymes that participate in cAMP signal transduction in the CB are regulated by O2/CO2. We characterized the enzymes involved in the cAMP-signaling pathway in the CB (sAC, tmAC, PDE) under different O2/CO2 conditions. Our results demonstrated that many of these enzymes are involved in CO2/O2 sensing and while they may be useful in treating conditions with alterations in CO2/O2 sensing,they will not be specific to chemoreception within the CB: 1) PDE4 is ubiquitously expressed in CB and non-chemoreceptor related tissues and their affinity to inhibitors change with O2 tensions in both CB and carotid arteries, and 2) sAC and tmAC are expressed in peripheral and central chemo- and non-chemoreceptor tissues and their effect on cAMP levels do not change between normocapnic and isohydric hypercapnic conditions. Our results provide evidence against a specific role of cAMP as a mediator for O2 and CO2 chemotransduction in the rat CB and emphasized the role of pH in CO2 sensitivity of the CB. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that cAMP levels are maintained higher under physiological conditions, supporting recent finding from our lab, which all together suggests that cAMP has a homeostatic function in this organ.

A systems biology framework for pathway level culture media engineering: pplication to Pichia pastoris cultures

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Engenharia Química e Bioquímica